Taking Action to Stop Violence: A Study on Readiness to Change Among Male Batterers

The Transtheoretical Model of Change (TTM) predicts that matching interventions with a person’s readiness to change should improve treatment outcomes. This cross-sectional correlational study examined characteristics that affected self-reported readiness to change abusive behavior among a sample of 109 men in a 52-week batterer treatment program. Participants completed measures of anger/hostility, readiness to change, manipulative parenting, and self-esteem. Results indicated that contemplation of the impact of abuse has the highest unique relationship with self-reported taking action to stop violence. Moreover, physical aggression and manipulative parenting account for significant variance in the scores associated with self-reported taking action to stop violence as well. These findings suggest that interventions aimed at moving clients into contemplation, and reducing physical aggression and manipulative parenting styles, may increase the likelihood that batterers will take action to stop violence.     

Predictors of Attrition in a Treatment Program for Battering Men

This study examines factors associated with the high attrition rate in treatment programs for men who batter. In accord with past research, we expected demographic variables of age, race, employment status, relationship status, and socioeconomic status to predict attrition. We also hypothesized that attitudinal and personality variables, as well as contextual/program variables, might account for attrition more parsimoniously. Specifically, we hypothesized that attrition would be predicted by frequency and severity of violence, denial of a problem with violence, rigidity of thinking, low levels of self-disclosure, and higher anxiety and constriction in social situations. In addition, we predicted attrition would relate to dependency, maladaptive personality styles, and expectations regarding group counseling (e.g., whether treatment is perceived as aversive). Finally, we proposed that attrition would relate to whether batterer participation in treatment was self-motivated or the result of external pressures. Participants were 61 men enrolled in a batterer treatment program in a mid-sized city. Analyses of variance and discriminant analyses indicated that program attrition was unrelated to demographic, attitudinal, or personality variables. Only the contextual/program variables of mileage traveled to attend and external monitoring of attendance significantly differentiated treatment rejecters, drop-outs, and treatment continuers. Findings are discussed with regard to intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors. Future directions for exploration are discussed.     

Cognitive-affective predictors of women's readiness to end domestic violence relationships

A model of women's readiness to terminate an abusive relationship was examined, using cognitive and emotional factors to predict readiness to change as conceptualized in the transtheoretical model. Factors previously identified in the domestic violence literature were selected to represent cognitive predictors (attribution and attachment style) and affective predictors (depression, hopelessness, anxiety, and anger) of readiness to end a domestic violence relationship. Responses by 85 female victims of intimate partner violence indicated that their overall readiness to terminate a relationship was predicted by a preoccupied attachment style and high emotional arousal. However, women's low level of anger predicted their precontemplation of change, the earliest stage of readiness, whereas internalizing emotional difficulties and preoccupation with their batterer predicted maintenance, the final stage of readiness to persist in their decision to leave their abuser. Implications of these findings for working with women considering leaving their partner are discussed.     

Predicting Attrition From Treatment Programs for Abusive Men

Attrition in male battering treatment programs is a serious problem. To keep clients in treatment, it is crucial to understand why they drop out. The current study examined the contribution of both client and program characteristics in predicting dropout from treatment programs for abusive men. Data were collected at intake from 306 abusive men who sought treatment at four different sites. The rate of preprogram attrition (from intake to the first treatment session) was higher in the program that had a lengthy waiting list (46%) than in the other programs amp lpar3%-13%). In-program attrition was more highly related to client characteristics than program characteristics (all programs had rates between 36% and 42%). Those men who dropped out after starting treatment tended to have unstable lifestyles (e.g., substance abuse problems, criminal history, unemployment) and to have inflicted more severe abuse than those who completed treatment. Results also supported a significant interaction between verbal aptitude and structure of program; men with low verbal aptitude were the most likely to drop out of an unstructured program. Possible strategies for preventing attrition are discussed.     

Outcomes of Case Management for African-American Men in Batterer Counseling

Case management for additional referrals has been recommended especially for African-American men in batterer counseling programs. Additional services addressing “at risk” needs may help to improve batterer program outcomes. To test this expectation, a quasi-experimental evaluation of a case management project was conducted for both “intention-to-treat” and “received-treatment.” The case management included brief assessment at batterer program intake, referral to relevant services, and follow-up calls from batterer program staff. Re-assault and re-arrests during a 12-month follow-up, along with program dropout from the 16 required sessions of the batterer program, were compared for 202 African-American program participants under case management and a sample of 482 African-American participants previously in the batterer program. In both bivariate and confirmatory multivariate analyses, neither the case management nor actual service contact significantly improved outcomes. However, the small portion of men contacting drug and alcohol treatment did tend toward better program outcomes. Poor implementation of the case management procedures may have contributed to the overall weak effects.     

Pre-program attrition in batterer programs

The outcome of batterer programs has become a topic of research and clinical concern in recent years. There has been little assessment, however, of the input of these programs and its implications. This study analyzes the records of 200 inquirers to a batterer program during 1989–1990 to determine the attrition rates based on the initial number of inquirers. The attrition from inquiry to intake is 73%, from inquiry to counseling attendance is 86%, and from inquiry to 12 counseling sessions is 93%. Only 1% actually completed the contracted 8 months of counseling sessions. The only background and protocol variable significantly associated with intake attrition was marital status. Those inquirers referred from informal referral sources and paying high monthly fees were more likely to attend over 12 counseling sessions. The 1990 inquiry-to-counseling attrition rates were higher than the program rates in the early 80s and higher than a comparable program with no separate intake session. The implications of these findings for pre-program protocol are discussed.     

Effects of Motivational Enhancement on Immediate Outcomes of Batterer Intervention

This article presents results of a quasi-experimental trial of a 6 week motivation enhancing intervention for batterers highly resistant to intervention. One hundred and forty one (29%) highly resistant batterers were identified from a consecutive sample of 486 men referred to a large batterer intervention program. Resistant batterers attended either standard intervention (16 weeks) or a specialized 6 week motivation enhancing group followed by 10 weeks of standard intervention. Observation of counselor behaviors confirmed significant differences in rates of confrontation across groups. Analyses of immediate program outcomes provide some support for the value of motivation enhancing intervention. Resistant batterers who attended specialized intervention completed intervention at a significantly higher rate (84.2%) than both resistant clients in standard intervention (46.5%) and non-resistant clients (61.1%). Differences were maintained even after controlling for demographic and lifestyle related predictors of attrition. Advantages of specialized intervention did not extend to counselor-rated success at meeting core treatment goals. Discussion focuses on the implications of these results for the use of motivation enhancing intervention strategies to improve attendance at batterer intervention programs.     

Predictors of Underreporting of Male Violence by Batterer Program Participants and Their Partners

Self-reports on domestic violence inventories remain the basis of court and clinical decision-making and program outcome evaluations, but previous research questions their reliability and validity. Accurate prediction of underreporting would help practitioners and researchers adjust batterer and victim self-reports. We develop prediction equations of underreporting on the Conflict Tactics Scale, using a multi-site database of men admitted to batterer programs and their female partners (n = 840). First we use variables measured at program intake to predict female and male underreporting of male violence at program intake. Second, we use variables measured at program intake, as well as measures of program participation, to predict male-female disagreement (male underreporting) at 12-month follow-up. Several variables were predictive of underreporting, both at intake and follow-up, but overall prediction was marginally better than chance. The findings suggest that men and women underreport based on situational factors (such as relationship characteristics) and rational reasons, rather than based on personality traits or social desirability. However, the ability to predict underreporting is too weak for adjustment of self-reports by clinicians and program evaluators.     

Assessing the Effect of Batterer Program Completion on Reassault: An Instrumental Variables Analysis

The main objective of this paper is to investigate the utility of using the instrumental variables (IV) method to estimate batterer program efficacy, i.e., the program effect among batterers who complete batterer programs. This method takes account of possible confounding due to unmeasured traits of compliers and non-compliers. A structural model is used to estimate the impact of program completion on reassault using instrumental variables (IV) regression. Data on 640 batterers enrolled at three batterer programs are used. Results obtained from IV regression are compared with those obtained from a more traditional regression analysis. The results indicate that usual regression methods yield estimates of program effect that may be biased due to confounding by unmeasured batterer characteristics. Unfortunately, IV estimates may be unreliable due to failure of some of the assumptions on which they are based. If equations are adequately identified by the non-linear functional form used to estimate them, then IV results indicate that among a very select group of batterers, program completion significantly reduces the probability of reassault. The implications of confounding due to program non-compliance, program non-enrollment and attrition for future evaluations of batterer programs are discussed.     

Assessing the effect of batterer program completion on reassault using propensity scores

Recent experimental evaluations have suggested little or no effect of batterer programs on reassault but are compromised by methodological and analytical issues. This study assesses program effect using propensity score analysis with a quasi-experimental sample in an attempt to address these issues. The sample consisted of 633 batterers and their partners from three geographically dispersed batterer programs and a 15-month follow-up with their female partners. Subclassification on propensity scores was used to balance program completers and program dropouts. The propensity score was estimated as the probability of completing the batterer program conditional on observable characteristics. Direct adjustment indicates that program completion reduced the probability of reassault during the 15-month follow-up by 33% for the full sample, and by nearly 50% for the court-ordered men.     

Improving violence intervention outcomes by integrating alcohol treatment

There is extensive empirical and theoretical support for a link between alcohol use and intimate partner violence. Recent innovations in the assessment of these constructs have shown a strong temporal link between alcohol use and intimate partner violence. The majority of men participating in batterer intervention programs have alcohol problems, and these men are at very high risk for violence recidivism. Research has shown substantial decreases in partner violence among alcoholics subsequent to obtaining alcohol treatment. It is likely that violence outcomes could be significantly improved by incorporating alcohol treatment as a standard component of batterer intervention programs.     

Predicting batterer recidivism five years after community intervention

The purpose of this study was to examine batterer recidivism rates 5 years after community intervention and to determine differences that discriminate between recidivists and nonrecidivists. Of the 100 men included in the sample, 40% were identified as recidivists because they were either convicted of domestic assault, the subject of an order for protection, or a police suspect for domestic assault. A discriminant analysis was conducted using a variety of background and intervention variables. Five variables were selected that significantly discriminated between recidivists and nonrecidivists and correctly classified 60.6% of the cases. Men who had been abusive for a shorter duration prior to the program, court ordered to have a chemical dependency evaluation, in chemical dependency treatment, abused as children, and previously convicted for nonassault crimes were more likely to be recidivists. Variables relating to intervention did not significantly predict recidivism. Implications for community intervention programs are discussed.     

Moderators of Response to Motivational Interviewing for Partner-violent Men

Careful attention to motivation for change may enhance the effects of interventions for partner-violent men. The present study tested predictions about differential response to a two-session motivational intake (MI) for partner-violent men, which was compared to a structured intake (SI) control. For those who were initially reluctant to change, MI produced greater forward movement in stage of change. For those who claimed to have already solved their problems with partner abuse, MI produced greater backward movement in stage of change and greater homework compliance in subsequent group cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). MI led to a stronger collaborative working alliance for those high in contemplation of change, and greater group session attendance for those with high trait anger. Contrary to hypotheses, analyses of post-CBT partner assault revealed a differentially greater benefit of MI for participants with lower levels of pretreatment contemplation and trait anger. The findings provide qualified support for the expectation that MI has the greatest beneficial effects on those who appear initially reluctant to change.     

Predicting dropout from a residential programme for adolescent sexual abusers using pre-treatment variables and implications for recidivism

Abstract

This study addresses the prediction that dropout from a UK specialized residential treatment program for adolescent sexual abusers can be determined from pre-treatment variables. Participants were 49 adolescents aged 12–16?years, who had sexually abused children, peers/adults or both. Of the variables examined, 25 showed a significant association with treatment dropout. A scale, consisting of 20 items, was designed to predict treatment dropout. As a measure it showed internal consistency (alpha?=?0.84) and predictive validity. Treatment dropout was linked to a greater risk of recidivism: offences of a general; violent; and combined violent or sexual nature. Missing data confounded the overall small sample size; therefore, a brief checklist of factors associated with dropout was produced as a guide for treatment managers and clinicians.     

Time-Varying Risk Factors for Reassault Among Batterer Program Participants

This study uses longitudinal data to identify risk markers for reassault among batterer program participants. Data are from 308 men and their partners collected at five, 3-month intervals. Time-varying situational and behavioral risk factors, as well as time-invariant individual characteristics, are examined. The most influential risk markers, in terms of relative risk and level of statistical significance, were time-varying: 2 measures of the man's drunkenness during the follow-up interval in which the reassault occurred (OR: 3.5-16.3; p > .0005). Other included time-varying batterer characteristics had no significant effect on reassault. Two significant time-invariant batterer risk factors were (1) severe psychopathology and (2) a history of non-domestic-violence arrest, both measured at intake. Results suggest that batterers' drinking behavior after program intake may provide an important and easily observed marker for risk of reassault and that prediction of reassault with individual risk factors at program intake remains problematical.     

Reactions to Affirmative Action: Group Membership and Social Justice

A program designed for either women, visible minorities, or disabled persons was rated by 264 women and men respondents. An analysis of variance revealed that reactions to affirmative action varied according to the sex of the respondent and the group targeted by the policy. Further analyses were conducted to examine the effects of two social justice concerns on support for affirmative action, that is, scope of justice (extending fair treatment onto others) and perceived threat on behalf of nondesignated groups. According to findings, the link between social justice concerns and reactions to the policy was affected by the group targeted by affirmative action. Furthermore, both social justice concerns were not equally important predictors of attitudes toward affirmative action for women and men respondents.     

Extent and characteristics of woman batterers among federal inmates

Efforts to identify men who batter women in clinical settings have increased in recent years, but batterer research in United States federal prisons is lacking; low security federal prisons are logical places to consider batterer screening and treatment given the number of men, the domestic violence "risk markers" associated with these men and the likelihood they will be released and return to female partners. This study examined intake assessment data for 115 low security federal inmates. The inmates evidenced high levels of risk markers for woman battering, one in three (33%) acknowledged recent physical violence against women partners, 1 in 10 (13%) admitted severe violence, and the self-identified batterers showed more substance use and personality problems than other inmates. The findings suggest that batterer screening and treatment may be needed in federal prisons and that more research is warranted with a burgeoning male population that ultimately returns to society.     

MCMI-III Results for Batterer Program Participants in Four Cities: Less “Pathological” Than Expected

Previous research using diagnostic inventories describe the extent and nature of psychopathology among batterers. MCMI-III scores from batterers in a multisite program evaluation (n = 840) were used to replicate this previous research. As in previous batterer research using the MCMI-I and MCMI-II, the MCMI-III results suggest a complex diversity of psychological problems that does not readily conform to previous profiles. However, less than half of the men had scores suggesting a personality disorder (BR scores 85), as opposed to 80% in a previous batterer study using the MCMI-II. Only one quarter of the men (25%) show evidence of a severe mental disorder. Narcissistic or antisocial tendencies were evident in 39% of our batterer sample, reflecting the sense of entitlement often attributed to batterers. Voluntary, as opposed to court-referred men, were more likely to have depressive and dependent tendencies and evidence of severe disorders. Our multisite sample appears to be less pathological than previous batterer samples and samples of psychiatric or drug outpatients.     

The effects of a group batterer treatment program: A randomized experiment in Brooklyn

Despite numerous evaluations of batterer treatment programs, most lack sufficient methodological rigor to yield valid answers about the programs' effectiveness. This paper presents results from an experimental evaluation in which 376 adult males convicted of domestic violence were randomly assigned to either a 40-hour batterer treatment program or 40 hours of community service that did not include any therapeutic treatment. We examined both official records and victims' reports of recidivism. Those assigned to the treatment program showed significantly lower recidivism, on the basis of all outcome measures from official records. Although victims' reports also recorded fewer failures among the batterers assigned to the treatment group, the differences in failure rates were not large enough to be statistically significant. Overall results suggest that therapeutic treatment for batterers may reduce domestic violence among convicted batterers who agree to this sentence.