浅析俄罗斯的能源外交战略

作为一个务实的政治家,普京在制定外交政策等国家大政方针时都精明而讲求实际,其中就包括摆正现实力量与外交努力之间的关系。普京执政后积极主动地开展外交攻势,希望再次树立起大国形象。而随着能源“战国”时代的再次来临,能源在各国事务中具有了愈来愈浓厚的政治色彩,这些现实变化无疑使普京看到了利用现实力量开拓能源外交,进而实现其强国梦想的可能性。     

普京连任后的俄罗斯国内政治与经济政策走向

普京在第二个任期内,仍坚持实施以体现俄罗斯思想为指导的治国方略和政策,因此,与第一个任期一样,他的治国方略或基本政策仍是两条:政治上的集权化和经济上的自由化。从今后国家政策的总趋势看,俄罗斯所推行的改革和发展政策与措施,都将围绕加速经济发展与加强中央权力这两个轴心来进行。俄罗斯经济将继续保持较快的增长速度,但 2010年实现GDP翻番的目标仍存在不少困难。     

普京的使命:俄罗斯向何处去?——对普京政策的挑战和回应

俄罗斯现有的政治体制是"普京方案",专注于"内部改革",兼顾社会各种利益、问题和挑战,扮演着稳定局面的"保障者"和"危机管理人"的角色,但正在被社会大众所厌倦。因此,普京必须回归"战略管理者"的地位。然而,留给俄罗斯执政精英们用于决定转变的时间越来越少了。因此,当前亟须找到一种政治方略,确保"俄罗斯体系"不再经历新一轮的灾难和破坏性威胁。在此基础上建立社会和国家的"动态平衡"模式,这是俄罗斯历届领导人尚未完成的使命。只有实现国家现代化,重建社会、政治、经济和意识形态模式,使俄罗斯人获得政治民主地位,才是对于当代挑战的回答,其他任何方案都意味着历史悠久的俄罗斯将最终走向衰败和解体。     

“普京主义”的社会基础与2012年总统选举之后的俄罗斯政治生态发展趋势

"普京主义"是由普京及其侧近政治精英倡导并开创的俄罗斯所特有的"克里斯玛"型政权组织形态的变种,其特征包括但又不限于高度集权的总统制及领袖崇拜、政府主导的市场经济和主权民主意识形态的交织与融合,而且仍在持续的演化。2012年俄罗斯总统选举的结果标志着俄罗斯梅普组合"双头政治"格局的结束以及始于2000年并可能持续至2024年的"长普京时代"新阶段的开始。以强国、威权为主要特征的"普京主义"或将继续左右俄罗斯的政治生态。"普京主义"不同于经典意义上的"全能主义"和"威权主义",而是俄罗斯转型时期的产物。普京通过不同于西方自由主义民主的制度安排,克服了叶利钦时期俄罗斯转型的"制度陷阱",摆脱了国家治理危机,满足了俄罗斯民众对于秩序、稳定和发展的期许,从而在俄罗斯形成了特殊的"普京多数"现象,构成了"普京主义"的社会基础。然而,俄罗斯经济的稳定发展催生了新中产阶级的兴起,选民结构的代际变化,以及互联网和社交网络的勃兴,逐渐消解了"普京主义"的正当性。随着一个与"普京多数"针锋相对的"去普京多数"群体的崛起,普京政权正面临着日趋严峻的挑战,可能出现五种不同的发展前景。     

2011年新加坡:政治、经济与外交

2011年,新加坡顺利举行国会大选和总统大选,完成新老领导班子交接,但是大选结果也凸显了民众对政府的不满,赢回民心是新一届政府的首要任务。在经济方面,新加坡经济增长步伐整体放缓,政府逐步出台系列措施进行经济重整,给长期依赖外来劳动力的行业带来阵痛。在外交上,新加坡继续加强与周边国家的良好关系,加深与中美的双边经贸、安全防务等领域的合作,积极推动中美在亚洲地区良性合作的关系。最后,本文对2011年境内外出版的关于新加坡的中文学术研究成果进行简要回顾与介绍。     

2014年新加坡:政治、经济与外交

2014年,新加坡政府在大选前推出系列改善民生的措施,加大社会发展支出,为大选积极备战;经济方面,受外部经济放缓影响,新加坡国内经济增速整体放缓,同比增长2.9%,政府推出措施推动产业转型,鼓励本土企业拓展海外市场;外交方面,新加坡依旧表现活跃,继续加强区域内及与中美合作关系,同时拓展、深化与其他大国/地区的多边合作。     

2010年越南:政治、经济与外交

2010年,越南政治持续稳定。经济仍保持较高的增长,并超过预期目标,但也存在不少问题,如反腐力度不够,各项改革有待深化;贸易逆差和高通胀等因素仍是困扰经济的主要问题。外交上则亮点突出,尤其是越南在担任东盟轮值主席国期间,取得了有目共睹的积极外交成果。     

2008年韩国的政治外交综述

2008年是李明博总统执政的第一年，也成为韩国政治外交领域极不平静的一年。由于新政府的成立，2008年韩国在政治和外交等方面都出现了很大的变化。新旧政权交接后，政府的政策方针发生了变化，无论是在政治层面还是外交领域都出现了一个相对“混乱的时期”。所幸的是，由于李明博政府审时度势、适时地调整了国内外政策，逐渐克服了困境，并在朝野合作和中韩关系等方面开创了新局面。本文就2008年韩国政治、外交领域的几个主要方面做一考察和综述。     

瓦希德上台后的印尼内外政策趋向

本文分析了阿卜杜拉·拉赫曼·瓦希德上台后的印尼内外政策趋向 ,指出新政府将面临改革军队 ,巩固领土完整等诸多挑战。     

The Impact of the USSR on Lithuania's Domestic Policy and Its International Orientation in the Third Decade of the Twentieth Century

This article investigates links between domestic and foreign policy, topics which are usually discussed rather than analyzed in any detail. The case of the USSR and Lithuania is taken as an historical example of the impact of the external factor on domestic policy, and an attempt is made to elucidate how the Soviets tried to influence and correct Lithuania's policy in the inter-war period by providing financial assistance to parties and their press. In this way they sought to set Lithuania against Poland and fuel the conflict between them, so that they would not become reconciled, would not create the so-called Baltic Union with Latvia, Estonia and Finland and would not orient themselves to the West. Using financial and other levers of secret policy, the Soviets contributed significantly to pushing the pro-Western Christian Democratic Party away from power in Lithuania so that the Nationalists, who sought to establish closer relations with the USSR, came to be established. The overseas financing of parties which remained unknown to the public distorted the political process of Lithuania and hindered the maturing of social awareness.     

Afro‐Chinese relations: An evolving South‐South partnership

A detailed look at the historical and recent developments leading to the current Afro‐Sino relationship and the implications it has for South‐South relations in a changing global order.     

Foreign Policy “On the Cheap”: Latvia’s Foreign Policy Experience from the Economic Crisis

This article assesses whether the reduction of budgetary allocations to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Latvia in 2008–2012 led to more modest foreign policy in the sense of both objectives and execution. After assessing four goals of Latvian foreign policy since 2008 – regional cooperation, bilateral development cooperation, facilitation of Latvia’s economic interests abroad, and relations with the Latvian diaspora – the authors conclude that the decrease in funding for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs had little impact on Latvia’s ability to achieve foreign policy objectives.     

Sub-state diplomacy and the foreign policy-development nexus in South Africa

This article examines the role of sub-state diplomacy, defined as the transnational linkages of sub-national governments, in bridging the gap between foreign policy and the domestic development agenda in South Africa. It argues that, as territorial sub-state actors, provinces and municipalities are strategically positioned to use their international relations to make foreign policy more responsive to domestic socio-economic priorities. In the South African case, however, this potential is yet to be fully realised, mainly because of institutional fragmentation of the foreign policy apparatus, but also owing to enduring challenges in the foreign activities of sub-national governments. The article concludes by making the case for a new diplomatic paradigm in South Africa, one that actively promotes and harnesses the foreign activities and capacities of different national stakeholders, including those of sub-national governments, in the interest of the domestic development agenda.     

Kenya's foreign policy in context (1963–2015)

Kenya matters regionally and globally. It is the economic powerhouse of East Africa and a long-standing hub for multilateral diplomacy; its positioning in a turbulent region has fashioned its profile as an anchor state in African peace and security. Until recently, Kenya's foreign policy orientation has situated it as a benign regional leader, but pressing developments in the regional and international environments have edged it towards a more assertive foreign policy position. This study constitutes a multilevel review of Kenya's foreign policy in the period 1963–2015, beginning with Jomo Kenyatta through to the current president, Uhuru Kenyatta. After evaluating contexts pertinent to the analysis of Kenya’s foreign policy, the fundamental principles, objectives and pillars of the current foreign policy are unpacked.     

IBSA's trilateral constellation and its development fund: Valuable pioneers in development cooperation?

With a changing geopolitical landscape following the Northern-induced global financial meltdown, stagnation on global governance reform and failure to reach agreement on issues ranging from trade (Doha Development Round) to climate change (United Nations Convention on Climate Change), the India–Brazil–South Africa (IBSA) Dialogue Forum finds itself at the proverbial crossroads. At this point, with no summit having taken place since 2011, the future of IBSA is uncertain in part because the three IBSA partners have allowed ambivalence and lack of leadership to hold sway. Yet the current fluidity in the international environment has ironically meant that IBSA is more relevant and needed than ever before. IBSA is well placed to play a vital role in arresting the current trajectory of the global governance architecture, particularly when it comes to concerns of development. As this article argues, it is in the area of development cooperation that IBSA has found its niche in demonstrating the possibilities that development diplomacy and South–South cooperation avail, while challenging traditional norm conceptions when it comes to the future of international development financial institutions. Yet the question remains as to how this will be used going forward, as there is little strategic discussion between the trilateral partners on the future of development diplomacy and the IBSA Fund.     

Colombian Foreign Policy and the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939 (Blakemore Prizewinner for 2020)

The Spanish civil war saw two different Liberal presidencies in Colombia. Contrary to common belief, they did not follow a unified policy towards Spain but instead faced different parameters for action which shaped their response. These policies, in turn, illuminate both the internal dynamics of the two administrations and how they conceived of Colombia's position on the world stage. By providing the national, international and wider structural contexts, this article will therefore use the Spanish conflict to shine a spotlight on the Santos and López governments and the development of Colombian foreign policy during the late 1930s.     

The emerging middle power concept: Time to say goodbye?

To deal with the wide range of states that are considered middle powers, scholars distinguish between traditional middle powers on the one hand, and emerging, non-traditional or Southern middle powers on the other. This article examines the middle power concept in light of such diversity. It rejects middle power conceptions based on a ranking of size, power or position, on performing morally commendable international actions, on playing niche roles in international diplomacy, or on national self-identification. The article then considers a conception of middle powers as international stabilisers. The difficulty with this latter conception is that new middle powers exhibit a counter-hegemonic streak and a preference for multipolarity. Both of these are destabilising. The proposed solution is to jettison adjectives such as ‘emerging’ or ‘Southern’ with regard to middle powers, to stop classifying mid-range states with counter-hegemonic tendencies as middle powers, and to restrict the middle power term to mid-range states that actively support the liberal hegemonic project.     

South Africa and Japan: maintaining a difficult friendship

Japan's economic and political relationship with South Africa has been characterised historically by ambiguity. Throughout the twentieth century, economic ties were underpinned by mercantilist and strategic considerations. During apartheid, this placed Japan in an uneasy position as it sought to balance a relationship of expediency with wider foreign policy objectives in the rest of Africa and beyond. The demise of apartheid created the space for new forms of engagement centred on the pursuit of cognate goals. This has seen the intensification and deepening of economic ties in particular. Yet relations, especially at the political and diplomatic levels, have also been more complex than anticipated, and in recent years, the rise in Africa of other players from Asia and the Global South has had a bearing on South Africa–Japan ties. In this paper, it is argued that two related dynamics pivoting on policy elites’ changing conceptions (or self-view) of the nature of the state they are running and its place in the wider world order help explain the post-apartheid evolution of the South Africa–Japan relationship. First, there has been an apparent shift in South African foreign policy elites’ self-view, mediated by a changing systemic context. The development and manifestation over time of a stronger Global South self-conception in South African foreign policy, fashioned in juxtaposition to what have been considered in the past key Global North relationships, had direct consequences for South Africa–Japan ties. Second, meso- and micro-level dynamics – the role of the general operations in the diplomatic (i.e. bureaucratic) arena, and the personalities and shifting political preferences of individual executive leaders – had major impacts on how South Africa engaged with Japan in the past two decades.     

Seeking Domestic Approval: Determinants of Ratification Duration in International Trade

Preferential trade agreements (PTAs) have proliferated rapidly since the early 1990s. The ratification of these agreements matters both economically by rendering commitments legally enforceable for outward‐oriented industries and politically by revealing the domestic‐ and international‐level factors which delay or accelerate the entry into force of a PTA. This research note investigates the institutional design and domestic political determinants of the ratification duration for 270 PTAs concluded in the post‐1990 period. The Weibull survival analysis yields two main results: First, neither domestic political constraints measured through veto players nor PTA depth affect ratification spells. Second, ratification processes become more protracted in the presence of stringent formal domestic ratification requirements as well as with a higher number of partner states. These findings suggest that trade negotiators factor in the shadow of ratification in the bargaining phase but still remain subject to formal ratification hurdles and PTA membership dynamics.