Determinants of knowledge transfer: evidence from Canadian university researchers in natural sciences and engineering

This paper addresses three questions: First, what is the extent of research transfer in natural sciences and engineering among Canadian university researchers? Second, are there differences between various disciplines with regard to the extent of this transfer? And third, what are the determinants of research transfer? To answer these questions, the paper begins by differentiating between technology transfer and knowledge transfer. It then identifies the individual researcher as the unit of analysis of this study and introduces a conceptual framework derived from the resource-based approach of firms. The paper then reviews the literature on each of the factors included in the conceptual framework, beginning with the dependent variable, knowledge transfer. The conceptual framework includes four categories of resources and one category of research attributes that are likely to influence knowledge transfer. Based on a survey of 1,554 researchers funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), comparisons of means of research transfer across research fields were conducted. Multivariate regression analyses were used to identify the determinants of research transfer by research field. The results of these analyses indicate that researchers transferred knowledge much more actively when no commercialization was involved than when there was commercialization of protected intellectual property. This paper thus adds to the relatively scarce evidence about knowledge transfer by examining knowledge transfer from a broader perspective than strict commercialization. The findings of this paper are also interesting for other reasons. We obtained statistical evidence indicating that researchers in certain research fields were much more active in knowledge transfer than those in other fields, thereby pointing to differences in levels of knowledge activities across research fields. Furthermore, we obtained evidence showing that only two determinants explained knowledge transfer in all the six research fields considered in this study, namely, focus of research projects on users’ needs, and linkages between researchers and research users. Statistical evidence obtained indicates that the other determinants that influence knowledge transfer vary from one research field to another, thus suggesting that different policies would be required to increase knowledge transfer in different research fields. The last part of the paper outlines the implications of the regression results for theory building, public policy and future research.     

Illinois plan for technology transferat Illinois State University

Illinois has enacted legislation with a directive to enhance the economic development of companies in the state by encouraging new-product development. The policies and strategies used at Illinois State University to carry out an increased participation in technology transfer leading to enhanced industry/university interaction are presented. Identifiable factors leading to local project success have been the university's ability to develop inter-departmental research groups, provide the proper motivation to the group members, and set up a structure for commercialization of the new products developed by these groups.

     

Family-owned,limited close corporations and protection of ownership

Protected ownership and freedom of contracts are two basic parts of the institutional framework of successful countries according to Douglass North, winner of the Nobel Prize in 1993. The incentives to make long-term investments are strengthened if ownership rights are protected and freedom of contracts is a basic element in the process of efficient allocation of scarce resources. An important engine in prosperous societies is the family firm. Most companies in these societies can be classified as family firms and a major part of GDP is produced by family businesses. Consequently, how ownership is protected in family firms is an important issue.Three important factors of private ownership of property are the rights to determine use of owned assets, the return generated from them and to transfer the assets at mutually agreeable terms to a new owner(s).The incentives of a founder entrepreneur to put efforts into the establishment of a firm are determined by all the three factors. We will here pay special attention to the third factor, transfer of the ownership of the firm. The founder often places contractual restrictions on such transfers to ensure that the structure of ownership is stable and that the firm stays in the family. The possibility to do so is part of the freedom of contracts and is associated with the extent of ownership held as well as the incentives to invest in new businesses.This paper is primarily about how protection of family ownership can be achieved from a legal point of view and discusses the reasons to enforce these legal relationships in the future for second, third, fourth etc. generations of family owners.     

Building Successful Technology Commercialization Teams: Pilot Empirical Support for the Theory of Cascading Commitment

Improving the process of commercializing a technology from a public lab requires a deep understanding of which factors actually contribute to successful commercialization. Such factors are complex, including the quality of the technology itself, choice of transfer mechanism, quality of business intelligence, project evaluation and selection techniques, team building processes, organizational structures, reward and penalty structures, financial support, human resources support, and project management tools, among others. This article focuses on the improvement of team-building processes. It describes a pilot empirical test of the theory of cascading commitment, using data from a study of 34 technology transfer cases from 5 different Canadian federal labs. Of the 34 cases, 20 were successful, 11 were unsuccessful, and 3 were uncertain. In this paper, success was defined as the private sector manufacturer's perception of how well the project attained the profit objective associated with sales of a new product which embedded the new technology. The pilot results provide directional support for the key propositions of the theory: 1) a complete team of both public and private organizations is necessary; 2) a complete team of key individuals (linchpins) from within each organization is necessary; 3) there is an optimal sequence for recruiting the organizational partners; 4) there is an optimal stage for recruiting each organizational partner; 5) high commitment from every linchpin is necessary; 6) linchpin commitment to the team is determined by a variety of factors; and 7) the probability of success is improved if the team of linchpins remains intact until the commercial launch is achieved. Some provisional implications for management practice are provided, as well as suggestions for future research.     

A Survey Analysis of University-Technology Transfer in Israel: Evaluation of Projects and Determinants of Success

The purpose of this study is to examine how technology transfer organizations (TTOs) at Israeli universities evaluate projects and how they perceive the success or failure of these projects once they are selected. We also analyze whether the criteria they use are similar to those employed by venture capitalists and MIT. We find that the decision criteria used by Israeli universities are similar to those employed by venture capitalists and by the relatively entrepreneurially-focused TTO at MIT. The perceived success of a technology transfer project is strongly related to the quality and motivation of the project team. Dimotech, an Israeli TTO that is focused on entrepreneurial startups, appears to place a stronger emphasis on the characteristics of the individuals involved in launching a new venture than the other Israeli TTOs, which are focused on licensing.     

Barriers and Bridges for Successful Environmental Technology Transfer

Governmental policy, social factors, individual behavior, and technology play critical roles in improving the environment. The Department of Defense is not immune to these factors as its actions have, and will continue, to impact its operational environments.This research analyzes the technological aspect of improving environmental conditions. Of particular interest, are the barriers encountered when laboratories transfer environmental technology to an end-user, and the bridges used to mitigate these barriers. A case study methodology is utilized analyzing five environmental technology transfers within the U.S. Air Force.Several key barriers and bridges are specific to the transfer of environmental technologies. They include environmental regulatory agency oversight, difficulty in clearly defining the end-user, and the need to demonstrate technologies to potential end-users. However, many barriers and bridges encountered in the environmental technology transfer, are also encountered in the transfer of other technologies. Based on these findings, recommendations are provided for improving the environmental technology transfer process.     

A model of institutional network dynamics and a comparative case analysis of information technology transfer

This paper examines the institutional network dynamics of information technology transfer with particular emphasis on the roles of publicly-funded centers for research and development at the national and regional policy-making levels. The conceptual model serves as a basis for qualitative case analysis and comparison of research management structures in two Canadian research centers located in Quebec Province. Conclusions are formulated regarding the complementarity of program and project dominant structures as well as the comparison of hierarchies and markets as technology transfer control mechanisms. Program dominant management appears appropriate to development of national innovation infrastructures, while project dominant management facilitates problem solving in regional innovation networks. The consequences of these conclusions for research management in global technological markets are discussed. This research was funded by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. The names of the research centers under study have been changed.     

Gauging the process of international technology transfer

A Technology Transfer Index is proposed for gauging the process of international technology transfer. The approach is based on the premise that the transferee in the process aims at achieving technological independence through gradual replacement of imported technological components by indigenous resources. By avoiding abstract concepts and concentrating on the end-results of the technology transfer process, the index can be computed from readily available statistics of production costs and international trade. The quantitative measure is expected to be a useful indicator for economic planning, aid program management and project evaluation and assessment.     

Inter-organisational technology/knowledge transfer: a framework from critical literature review

This paper aims to provide, through a literature analysis, a solid theoretical foundation that allows identifying the critical factors for technology/knowledge transfer. The literature review allowed to summarize the main contributions collected, to identify the main critical factors for technology/knowledge transfer and to frame them in a simple framework, carrying out a rationalization and classification. We built a reference framework, called “model of technology/knowledge transfer”. The proposed structure considers six categories related to the actors involved (sources, recipients and intermediaries), the relationship between them, the object of the transfer, the channels and mechanisms and the reference context. The factors represent all the main parameters and levers to consider in the design and implementation of an activity of technology/knowledge transfer. This can direct also future research by deepening these factors or the relationship among them.     

Recognizing ergonomics variations: Human factors in technology transfer to Newly Industrializing Countries

The importance of recognizing human factors in technology transfer to Newly Industrializing Countries and identifying the increase in complexity of these factors as the human aspect crosses cultural, ethnic and national boundaries is becoming more evident. These considerations are proving to be major determining factors of the success of the technology transfer. This paper will cite examples and discuss such differences in anthropometrics, physiological aspects, cognitive characteristics, perception, work attitudes, training, and translation. These differences need to be identified not only abroad, but also in the U. S., as business with foreign nationals done locally increases. In other words, human factors in technology transfer should not be limited to developing countries, but should also be applied to operations in the U. S., as foreign nationals also need to be trained.     

Performance of technology transfer offices in Germany

The aim of this study is to empirically analyze the performance of technology transfer offices (TTO) in Germany. Although being one of the largest and innovative economies in the world, there is only scarce evidence about the role and performance of TTO in university–industry technology transfer. While policy makers and university managers are often quite optimistic about the impact of TTO in fostering technology transfer into the region, consulting firms and research institutes report such institutions in Germany as superfluous and counterproductive. Using the number of invention disclosures as a performance measure, we analyze how variance in performance can be explained by different organizational structures and variables of TTO. Controlling for regional endowment and university specific effects, our results reveal that TTO performance is mainly a function of the kind of labor division within the TTO and the research intensity of the university. Knowing the drivers of TTO performance may help policy makers and university managers to reflect their strategies, mitigate weak points and thus foster performance.     

The university and business incubation: Technology transfer through entrepreneurial development

This paper reviews university programs that seek to promote technology transfer through entrepreneurial development. It describes fourkey factors (talent, technology, capital, and know-how) that must be linked for successful transfer, and focuses on the new-business incubator as an important mechanism for synergizing these factors in the university. The paper also shows how the incubator supports the development of new technology companies by helping them build credibility, shorten the learning curve, and solve problems faster, and by providing access to entrepreneurial networks. Empirical data on selected university incubators are presented.     

Demand Pull Technology Transfer Applied to the Field of Assistive Technology

Technology transfer has generally had little impact on the assistive technology industries serving small, highly fragmented “disability markets.” Persons with disabilities often require specialized, relatively sophisticated technology. Third-party payer reimbursement rates and the low levels of disposable income among disability populations often cap product pricing. Transferring technology to these industry segments therefore poses special challenges. In October 1998, the Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center on Technology Transfer initiated the “Demand-Pull Project on Wheeled Mobility.” Successful transfers resulting from this project demonstrate that a systematic technology transfer process can be successfully applied to industries serving specialized and underserved niche markets.     

Analysis and Classification of Problem Statements in Technology Transfer

For many years, the U.S. Government has encouraged the transfer of technologies developed through taxpayer funded endeavors to the commercial sector of the U.S. economy. The Regional Technology Applications Board, based at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, is an organization with technology transfer responsibilities. The Board receives technology transfer assistance (TTA) requests from many private-sector firms. The Board relies heavily on a problem statement from the requestor of technology assistance in determining an appropriate solution to the requestor's needs. However, the problem statements contained in these requests are often vague, ambiguous, or repetitive. This study reports on a method developed to analyze and classify problem statements that have been received by the Board so that additional understanding of the nature of these problems is obtained. One thousand one hundred past problem statements were analyzed using a content analysis method. The hierarchical classification structure developed during this project includes classes, sub-classes, and sub-sub-classes, allowing for differentiation of problem statements based upon key elements contained within the statements. Previously, no method for analysis and classification of problem statements had been documented. The results of the study indicate that problem statements can be analyzed and classified. The problem statement classification structure created through this project provides a vehicle for problem statement assignment, thereby lending additional form to the problem definition process. The study also provides an understanding of the frequency and distribution of TTA problem statements received by the Board.     

A partnership approach to successful,cost-effective technology transfer

The U.S. government, which funds virtually all types of basic research and development, can maximize its investment and best support technology transfer by focusing on R&D at its “budding” stage, and by involving large corporations, small businesses, and researchers in formal three-way partnerships to refine promising technologies and find suitable markets for them. This approach has the added benefit of requiring no additional, special funding for technology transfer. I propose a three-way technology transfer approach based on these concepts: the creation of a three-way partnership among researchers (the innovators), small business (the product/market developers), and industry (the end users of technology), with close liaison from day one for each project, and government serving as the facilitator; the selection of projects that will produce research and development results convertible to prototypes for testing in the end user’s environment; and the selection of projects that complement each other for building a critical mass of technology transfer from the bottom up. This type of approach utilizes the best attributes of each member of the technology partnership; focuses technology transfer efforts at the level of basic technology, where there is maximum flexibility and opportunity; and utilizes existing program funding to accomplish technology transfer objectives.     

A technology network for economic development

A technology delivery system designed to provide small and medium-sized businesses with improved access to technological resources for enhancing their productivity and competitiveness has been tested under controlled conditions in the southeastern United States. The demonstration project involved federal research laboratories, state universities, National Information Service and Economic Development Administration of the U.S. Department of Commerce, and technology users in the private sector. The results of the 18 month project are reported and assessed to identify the conditions for the establishment of a national technology network for small and medium sized firms.     

University Technology Transfer: Do Incentives, Management, and Location Matter?

University technology transfer activities are increasingly important as a source of regional economic development and revenue for the university. We use regression analysis, a two-stage model and the most recent data to examine the determinants of technology transfer. Our analysis strongly support four factors, not previously examined in the literature, enhancing university technology transfer: greater rewards for faculty involvement in technology transfer, location of the university in a region with a concentration of high technology firms, a clear university mission in support of technology transfer and the experience of the university's technology transfer office.     

Government Industry Data Exchange Program (GIDEP) - A program for technology transfer

This paper presents information on the current capability and future potential of the Government-Industry Data Exchange Program (GIDEP) as a viable data exchange program in terms of technology transfer and resources conservation providing a key to technological growth and profit. This information transfer function of technology utilization is an important aspect to be considered. This paper presents an overview of the ways the GIDEP Program is utilized by over 650 government and industry organizations to provide a technology transfer function for quality and reliability improvement. How increased productivity and economic benefits are derived from use of GIDEP data banks and its communication network are described. Specific examples of data utilization and benefits are provided.     

Bioethical and legal considerations in increasing the supply of transplantable organs: from UAGA to "Baby Fae"

In the last 35 years, organ transplant technology has advanced greatly. The major problem associated with organ transplantation is organ availability, and not surgery-related mortality. This article examines current organ procurement procedures and technologies, legislative responses to the scarcity of transplantable organs, as well as the psychological barriers to organ donation. Issues of fairness in the allocation of scarce economic and social resources, the role of religion and ethics in organ donation and transplantation decision, and the impact of the media are also considered.     

Sea Grant — The MIT Sea Grant Marine Industry collegium: A partnership of industry,government and academia

The Collegium has fostered interaction and technology transfer between MIT and the Marine Industry for five years, resulting in early utilization of the fruits of marine research at MIT and valuable guidance for MIT Sea Grant in addressing needs of industry. For maximum technology transfer to take place effectively in an academic/industry program, a number of conditions have to be met. This paper discusses three of the most important conditions. First, industry people must be aware of the interests and research capabilities of the faculty and of the resources available to the university. Second, successful technology transfer is a person to person interaction between people of common interest and roughly equivalent technical background. Third, and very important, technology transfer is communication from the recipient, or user, to the source of technology. Along with these three conditions is the need for early involvement of industry and government user in the research activity. The Collegium is a unique arrangement to accomplish these conditions. This paper describes the program at MIT.