Examples for use of the STR systems in stain assessment with special reference to Y chromosome systems

The authors describe 3 cases where Y-chromosomal systems were used for typing the biological traces. In the first case, a murder, for the major amount of cell material found on a dish towel (and analysed two years after the crime) female persons were excluded for the system amelogenin and Y-chromosomal systems. A brother of the victim could not be excluded for autosomal STR-systems. Upon confrontation with the results of the DNA-analysis (among other things), this brother confessed the murder of his sister some days later. He was found guilty by the court. In the second case described, a rape of two girls, many traces were analysed parallely with Y-chromosomal and autosomal PCR-systems. The objects where male DNA matching the suspect were found (a paper tissue, a sweat shirt and the knickers of the girls), also showed small amounts of alleles matching with the suspect for autosomal systems, while the major part in these systems was from the girls. The suspect was sentenced to many years imprisonment. In the third case, a possible rape of a young woman, a stained microscope slide of a vaginal swab had to be examined. Microscopically a few sperm heads could be seen in a surplus of leucocytes. The male proportion could be analysed only in the Y-chromosomal systems, not in the autosomal ones. For the frequency calculation of the Y-chromosomal allele combination the haplotype data bank of the Institute for Legal Medicine of the Humboldt university in Berlin was indispensable.     

Optimal patrol routes: interdicting and pursuing rhino poachers

Interdiction patrolling (also known as hot spots policing) is a proactive police operation that depends on good planning. And the pursuit of fleeing suspects is a challenging operation that all police forces engage in on a regular basis. We give software tools that improve the effectiveness of both. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our tools by applying them to the case of rhino poaching in wildlife reserves. An interdiction patrol pre-emptively seeks out poaching parties within a reserve. Upon picking up the trail of a poaching party, a pursuit team needs a pursuit strategy that optimizes their chances of an interception. Our interdiction patrol route tool identifies optimal interdiction patrol routes to walk. This tool is based on a Stackelberg game and represents different types of poachers and their utilities. These utilities are updated (learned) each time new information on poaching party routes is added to the database. Our second tool provides a real-time sequence of team member moves that maximizes the team’s chances of apprehending a pursued party. We show that our tools perform well when applied to simulated and real data.     

DNA forensics and the poaching of wildlife in Italy: a case study

DNA molecular techniques were used in a forensic investigation involving the poaching of wildlife in a national park of Italy. A poacher, after having snared a wild boar (Sus scrofa) sow, knifed it to death. The animal was retrieved by conservation officers at the scene before the poacher could remove the carcass. Subsequently, the suspect denied the charges. During a search of his home, a bloodstained knife was confiscated. A method to identify the species from the DNA extracted from the stains revealed the blood to be that of the non-domestic form of Sus scrofa. Further DNA typing for individual identity using species-specific single tandem repeats or microsatellites (STRs) showed that the DNA on the knife matched that of the poached boar. Based upon the forensic evidence obtained, the suspect was convicted of poaching and of cruelty to animals.     

Efficiency of forensic mtDNA analysis. Case examples demonstrating the identification of traces

The paper presents results of forensic mitochondrial DNA analyses which were aimed at typing the traces caused by touching or abrasion of skin cells. Five cases of strangulation tool investigation are summarised. Two cases of homicide could be cleared up by identifying the mtDNA of both the victim and the suspect on cables which had obviously been used as strangulation tools. In eight of 10 cases, weapons could be reliably assigned to their users. The mtDNA of the users could be even detected on cartridges after firing. In one case, evidence of a suicide could be provided by means of mtDNA sequencing of the wiping traces on a suicide note.     

A simple and inexpensive molecular method for sexing and identification of the forensic samples of elephant origin

The population of the Asian elephant is being dramatically reduced due to poaching of the ivory from the male. As poaching occurs in remote forests, it often takes weeks or longer for it to be discovered and it is therefore often very difficult to determine the sex of the decomposed body. Data suggest that in the recent past, over 2000 male elephants have been poached in South India. We have developed a technique based on molecular markers to determine that the carcass is an elephant and that it is a male. Using DNA sequence information from Genbank, we have developed two primer pairs: one for the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and the other for the sex-determining region of Y chromosome (SRY) gene of the Indian elephant. After PCR amplification of known elephant DNA, we found that the mtDNA was common in both males and females, whereas the SRY-specific amplicon was observed only in the male.     

Preventing Wildlife Crimes: Solutions That Can Overcome the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’

The 'tragedy of the commons' dilemma occurs when individuals working independently of one another, will overuse a common-property resource for short-term benefits while decimating the resource for long-term use (Hardin 1968). This is often found in the field of wildlife crimes where species become overexploited to increase short-term profits while endangering and eliminating a natural resource for future users. Wildlife crimes suffering from the ‘tragedy’ need to be prevented in order for species to avoid extinction while also conserving a natural resource that monetarily benefits numerous people and their respective communities. Current approaches to the illegal wildlife trade include implementing trade bans or regulatory schemes at the national and international level, yet their effectiveness of reducing the trade is unknown. Perhaps, a better approach in reducing the illegal wildlife trade is a combination of making it more difficult to poach (i.e. situational crime prevention) and incentivizing locals to abstain from poaching. This paper will first review the literature on wildlife crimes and then use a case study approach that will examine the literature on the illegal parrot trade, the market for wildlife skins, and over-fishing. Through these case studies, a comprehensive review of the problem will be detailed as well as innovative conservation solutions that show promise in reducing the poaching and exploitation of species. Amongst these solutions will be the use of situational crime prevention that has shown immediate reductions in crime when tailored towards highly-targeted areas and crimes.     

Drugs in prehistory: chemical analysis of ancient human hair

Concern about drug abuse in modern populations has led to the development of specific methods for identification of cocaine, opiates and cannabis in human hair. Drug use in prehistory can provide indirect evidence of interpopulational contact and social stratification. This paper reports drug evaluation in nineteen ancient hair samples from archaeological sites in northern Chile. Each sample was tested for the presence of traces of cocaine, opiates and cannabis, in order to establish a standard methodology for studies of drug use among prehistoric groups. Although results are negative, this absence of evidence could be due to two main causes: (1) the individuals evaluated did not use any drugs, which does not mean that other members of their cultural group did, or (2) the wide range of known drugs studied did not consider some group specific drugs, derived from local or imported plants, thus meaning that a greater drug range must be tested. In any case, our study confirms that drug testing in prehistoric samples is viable. However, in order to determine what kind of substances were used in prehistoric times new patterns that incorporate all drugs which are not part of the western pharmacopeia must be created. Finally, a methodology for the study of drug use among prehistoric groups using ancient hair samples is described.     

Survey of crowbar and household paints in burglary cases-population studies, transfer and interpretation

Experimental data useful for the interpretation of paint evidence recovered during burglary cases were obtained. A population study was carried out on 41 blue crowbars seized on suspects in Switzerland and 37 blue paints traces found at burglary scenes. Paint traces were also searched on the blades of 207 crowbars seized by the police in Switzerland and 24 white traces were analysed: these paints were analysed using infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) in order to estimate relative frequencies of each paint type. Simulated contacts were carried out between crowbars and painted wood in order to study the phenomenon of transfer and to evaluate the amount of paint transferred: a total of 198 simulations were carried out including individual, successive and cross transfer. The paint properties such as the chemical composition and its age influenced the amount of paint transferred. Cross transfer from the tool paint to the wood and vice versa was regularly observed. Moreover, secondary transfer of paint coming from the preceding wooden surfaces was also systematically observed: this could establish links between several burglary scenes and a suspected tool. A scenario of a burglary case involving the cross transfer between tool and household paints is proposed as a numerical example: the evaluation of such case was formalised using likelihood ratios based on the experimental data obtained.     

Forensic veterinary radiology: Ballistic-radiological 3D computertomographic reconstruction of an illegal lynx shooting in Switzerland

The lynx, which was reintroduced to Switzerland after being exterminated at the beginning of the 20th century, is protected by Swiss law. However, poaching occurs from time to time, which makes criminal investigations necessary. In the presented case, an illegally shot lynx was examined by conventional plane radiography and three-dimensional multislice computertomography (3D MSCT), of which the latter yielded superior results with respect to documentation and reconstruction of the inflicted gunshot wounds. We believe that 3D MSCT, already described in human forensic-pathological cases, is also a suitable and promising new technique for veterinary pathology.     

Victimless venison? Deer poaching and black market meat in the UK

Abstract

The British Deer Society places the number of poached deer in the UK as high as 50,000 each year whereas only 335 incidents were reported to the police in 2009. This article explores deer as invisible victims of green crime and the motivations behind this poaching, drawing on the typologies of wildlife crime offenders developed by Nurse in 2013. In particular, the traditional profit-driven motivation of offenders is explored by attempting to uncover if there is, as suspected, a black market in venison. In order to do this, online questionnaires were sent to wildlife crime officers and gamekeepers asking questions about the scale and scope of deer poaching, who the perpetrators are and what is happening to the meat. From these data, it is hoped that a more detailed picture of deer poaching can be developed to further inform wildlife law and poaching prevention. This article also draws attention to the plight of poached deer and the potential danger to people of a black market in venison.     

A second survey of high explosives traces in public places

This survey was carried out as a follow-up to a 1994 survey carried out by this laboratory (1) in order to determine the background levels of explosives traces in public places. The first survey concentrated on transport areas and police stations in and around London. This second study examines levels in four of the United Kingdom's major cities: Birmingham, Cardiff, Glasgow, and Manchester. Samples were taken at various transport sites and from hotels, private houses, private vehicles, and clothing. The survey showed that traces of the high explosives nitroglycerine (NG), trinitrotoluene (TNT), pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), and cyclotrimethylene trinitramine (RDX) are rare within the general public environment. Only one low-level trace of RDX was detected. NG, possibly associated with the use of firearms, was detected at low levels in two samples and 2,4-DNT was detected in a separate sample. No PETN was detected in any of the samples. The results of the survey indicate that it is unlikely that persons visiting public areas could become significantly contaminated with explosives. The analytical procedures employed would also have detected ethylene glycol dinitrate (EGDN) if present at levels greater than 2 ng, nitrobenzene (NB) if present at levels greater than 50 ng, mononitrotoluenes if present at levels greater than 50 ng, and the other common isomers of dinitrotoluene if these had been present at levels in excess of 10 ng. None of these were detected. The relatively high volatility of EGDN, NB, and the mononitrotoluenes would, however, cause traces of these compounds to disperse rapidly. A proportion of the samples (approximately 7%) were analyzed for the presence of HMX. No HMX was detected.     

Transfer of biological traces in cases of hanging and ligature strangulation

In hanging and ligature strangulation, the noose mostly causes a mark or groove which is formed partly by compression of the skin and partly by abrasion with loss of the upper epidermal layers. The horny scales abraded from the neck may be transferred to the strangulation device or to the interposed textiles where they are sometimes visible at stereomicroscopic examination or even to the naked eye as silver-grey particles. The morphologic features of the epidermal transfer due to hanging and ligature strangulation is demonstrated by 14 case examples. The biological traces may be sufficient for comparative DNA typing by means of PCR-based methods. In 9 out of the 14 cases, genomic DNA typing was successful. Analysis of mtDNA succeeded in another two cases, although genomic DNA could not be detected. Beside the accumulation of solid epidermic particles the paper describes deposition of serous and fatty tissue fluid at the ligature (mainly adjacent to skin ridges).     

“The Judge Didn't Sentence Me to Be Raped”: Tracy Neal v. Michigan Department of Corrections: A 15-Year Battle Against the Sexual Abuse of Women Inmates in Michigan

This research traces the history of Tracy Neal v. Michigan Department of Corrections, a class action lawsuit against the Michigan Department of Corrections that alleged the sexual abuse of women prisoners spanning more than two decades. The litigation resulted in combined jury verdicts of more than $30 million for the plaintiffs and a $100 million settlement that included extensive injunctive relief. This article examines the abuses and conditions suffered by female inmates in Michigan prisons, the court decisions, jury trials, and settlement. Drawing on interviews from several lead attorneys for the plaintiffs, the article provides an examination of the circumstances, discusses litigation strategy, and highlights lessons from Neal that could be relevant to civil rights scholars and advocates. The article concludes with a discussion of the impact and future implications of this case.     

Analysis of microsatellite polymorphism in red deer, roe deer, and fallow deer -- possible employment in forensic applications

DNA microsatellites play a major role in population genetics, linkage mapping, and parentage studies of mammals. In addition, they may be used for forensic purposes, if an individual identification of a specific animal is necessary. Therefore, we tested a variety of microsatellite polymorphism derived from reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) by PCR and sequencing analysis for use in red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and fallow deer (Dama dama). Twelve of these microsatellites were selected for further analysis. In all these microsatellite polymorphism short tandem repeats could be detected for one or all three species as shown by sequencing analysis. In red deer, more than two alleles were found in eight microsatellites, in roe deer more than two alleles could be demonstrated in seven microsatellites, whereas in fallow deer more than two alleles were found in only two microsatellite polymorphism. A comparison of sequences of PCR products from the three deer species with the sequences of reindeer revealed several differences between the four species. In six microsatellites -- selected because or their reliability in PCR and because of their polymorphic character -- we established a sequenced allelic ladder and give population data of all three species from 82 deer of the Northeast region of Germany (Vorpommern). Our results show the possibility to use microsatellite polymorphism in the identification of deer in forensic applications like poaching.     

Complex suicide by two gunshots to the chest and consecutive hanging: circumstances and aspects of reconstruction

In cases of suicidal gunshots, the capacity to act may be preserved for a certain period of time, so that the suicide may be completed with another method. In the presented case a 74-year-old man was found hanged on the first floor of his house with two gunshot wounds in the chest. Both on the ground and the upper floor traces of suicidal acts were detected. As shots to the precordial region suggest rapid incapacitation, a suicide extending over two floors seemed almost impossible without knowledge of the cause of death and evaluation of the ability to act. The autopsy findings confirmed vital signs of hanging. Moreover, a through-and-through gunshot wound of the chest and abdomen affecting the spleen and a shot lodged in the body without injuring the lung were found. The injury findings thus sufficiently explained the preserved ability to act. The presented case shows characteristics of a complex suicide not yet described so far, but could be clearly classified as suicide in congruity with the pertinent literature.     

拆卸重装痕迹初探

通过对办案实践中的一些案例进行研究,提出拆卸重装痕迹的概念。归纳总结了不同种类联结的组合体拆卸重装痕迹的形态特征和检验鉴定的要点,并以成功案例进行实用说明。对拆卸重装痕迹检验鉴定中应注意的问题进行了分析探讨。     

An exercise in scientific problem-solving: Illustrating the utility of the principles of the Sydney Declaration

In forensic science, scientific problem-solving is characterized by the recognition of traces as part of iterative reasoning processes to assign meaning to those traces in order to interpret and reconstruct events. Through a set of fundamental principles, the Sydney Declaration presents a foundation of forensic science through the lens of a scientist. The distinction between a scientist and a technician may require clarification—where a prototypical technician follows a prescribed set of ‘standard operating procedures’ and may be limited in the interpretation of the resultant data, the scientist utilizes knowledge, skills, experience and imagination to identify the issue at hand and develop lines of inquiry for testing and interpretation. This case report draws on the Sydney Declaration in order to highlight the importance of learning about events from careful consideration of both obvious and less obvious traces. A case involving the assault of a police officer is examined to illustrate the use of the Principles: the problem originally defined by investigators at the scene and later by prosecutors resulted in incorrect analysis and interpretation of traces, hampering efforts at an accurate reconstruction of events. This exercise serves to demonstrate that in order to engage in scientific problem-solving, it is necessary to apply observation and reasoning in forensic investigations in order to yield an outcome that can be clearly articulated. The overarching goal is to support the drive to improve forensic science practice, education, and research through a case illustrating the value of the principles of the Sydney Declaration.     

Poaching, habitat loss and the decline of neotropical parrots: a comparative spatial analysis

Objective

To evaluate the relative contributions of poaching and habitat loss to the endangerment of neotropical parrots

Method

A matched case-control design was employed. Using NatureServe digitized range maps for birds in the Americas, 145 neotropical parrot species were individually matched with 145 control species, from similar ranges and, by proxy, from similar habitats. The control species were taxonomically similar, mid-sized, forest-dwelling birds that, like parrots, use holes and cavities for breeding and roosting. The conservation status of the parrots and control birds was established through the IUCN Red List of endangered species.

Results

Nearly five times as many parrot species (59 out of 145) as non-parrots (13 out of 145) are threatened with extinction to some degree. In 54 out of 65 pairs with unequal conservation status, the parrot species is at greater risk of extinction.

Conclusions

Subject to limitations of the matching employed and the use of range data as a proxy for habitat, it is concluded that poaching is a strong threat to the conservation of neotropical parrots—perhaps stronger than habitat loss. Criminologists therefore have an important part to play in conservation of parrots, and perhaps also in conservation of other endangered species, through identification and implementation of measures to control poaching.     

The illegal parrot trade: a literature review

Parrots are amongst the most beautiful and intelligent bird species in the world. They have been coveted as pets for centuries, particularly in the neo-tropics where they are heavily populated. Unfortunately, this has led to dramatic increases in parrot poaching over the last few decades, making parrots the most threatened bird species in the world. Despite laws against parrot poaching throughout the neo-tropics, the illegal trade continues while parrot populations further decline. This article reviews the literature on the players in the illegal parrot trade (i.e. poachers, itinerant fences, and market sellers), how poaching is largely committed, and which species are more at risk of becoming poached.     

Recovery of human DNA profiles from poached deer remains: A feasibility study

Poaching is a crime that occurs worldwide and can be extremely difficult to investigate and prosecute due to the nature of the evidence available. If a species is protected by international legislation such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora then simply possessing any part of that species is illegal. Previous studies have focused on the identification of endangered species in cases of potential poaching. Difficulties arise if the poached animal is not endangered. Species such as deer have hunting seasons whereby they can legally be hunted however poaching is the illegal take of deer, irrespective of season. Therefore, identification of deer alone has little probative value as samples could have originated from legal hunting activities in season. After a deer is hunted it is usual to remove the innards, head and lower limbs. The limbs are removed through manual force and represent a potential source of human touch DNA.We investigate the potential to recover and profile human autosomal DNA from poached deer remains. Samples from the legs of ten culled deer were obtained (40 in total) using minitapes. DNA from samples was extracted, quantified and amplified to determine if it would be possible to recover human STR profiles.Low quantification data led to the use of an extended PCR cycling protocol of 34 cycles. Samples from seven deer amplified, however some samples were excluded from further analysis due to ‘drop in’ alleles or the low level of successfully amplified loci. Samples from five deer could be further analysed and gave match probabilities ranging from 6.37 × 10^{− 3} to 9.53 × 10^{− 11}.This study demonstrates the potential of recovering human touch DNA from poached animal remains. There is the potential for this test to be used in relation to other species of poached remains or other types of wildlife crimes. This is the first time, to our knowledge, that human STR profiling has been successfully applied to touch DNA in regards to simulated wildlife crime.