Niederhoffer's cynicism scale: Reliability and beyond

This article presents an empirical assessment of the reliability and predictive validity of a modified version of Niederhoffer's (1967) police officer cynicism scale. The version of the scale examined in the study has been the subject of considerable methodological evaluations (Regoli, 1976a; Regoli and Poole, 1979; Anson et al., 1980; Anson, 1983). The results of these studies have not been consistent; nor have they come to grips with the predictive validity of the scale.Forty police officers attending a regional metropolitan training academy completed the scale at six-week intervals. The first administration of the scale subsequently was correlated to police supervisory ratings six months after scoring the Niederhoffer instrument.Longitudinal data revealed that the scale was an unstable and internally fragmented measurement instrument. Simple correlations between two distinct administrations of the scale and evaluations of police officers by superior officers indicated that the instrument had little predictive validity.The directions of the correlations support a reference group theory of police officer cynicism. Officers scoring high on cynicism receive higher job evaluations by superiors in police organizations. These data provide empirical support for the argument that cynicism is functional in the police officer subculture and that it is positively reinforced by superiors and peers.     

Does the stereotypical personality reported for the male police officer fit that of the female police officer

This research, using the content, validity and clinical scales found in the MMPI-2, investigates the differences in the psychological makeup of male versus female police recruits. The research design involves testing of police recruits on the first day of their academy experience. The literature on the police personality suggest that there exists a stereotype for male officers, a finding replicated in this study. The findings of this research also suggest that female officers do not generally fit the stereotype found in the study of male officers. An earlier version of this paper was present at the 1996 Annual Meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, March 12–16, 1996, Las Vegas, Nevada.     

An Examination of Officer Stress: Should Police Departments Implement Mandatory Counseling?

This study suggests that police departments who promote counseling benefit from officer stress reduction. Officers from sixteen municipal police departments (n = 1,114) across the state of Alabama possessed moderate stress, but were influenced significantly by organizational demographics (including counseling opportunities). A majority of officers believed that stress signs were not predictive of police suitability but remained reluctant to share fears and anxieties with fellow colleagues, suggesting that officers feared the stigma associated with the need for stress counseling. Officers working in supportive counseling climates had significantly less stress, a reduced need for counseling, and a greater willingness to use counseling. Officers who engaged in counseling (at least occasionally) also reported more stress, indicating an awareness of their need for counseling. The authors concluded that police departments should consider requiring mandatory and periodic counseling for all officers, a procedural tactic that camouflages counseling need while concurrently treating the source of officer stress.     

An Inside View of Police Officers�� Experience with Domestic Violence

Since the recognition of domestic violence (DV) in the late 1970s, police officers have been frontline providers. Despite their changing role as a result of the criminalization of DV, little is known about their experiences and responses to this public health issue from their unique perspective. Via focus groups, 22 police officers discussed their scope of practice and emotional reactions to DV calls. Participants reported frustration with the recurring nature of DV and with the larger systems?? lack of accountability (e.g., courts, prosecution and community) that follow their initial interventions. Participants discussed the limitations of their role as protectors of public safety, attitudes that evolve over time and their beliefs as to contributing factors that perpetuate DV. Additionally, the officers recommend: more professional training, counseling, incident debriefing for officers including feedback on case disposition, better collaboration across professional groups, and evidence-based prosecution. Harsher penalties were also recommended.     

Toward the development of a roles framework for police psychology

The past two decades have seen major transformations in the way police departments conduct business. These transformations have impacted all aspects of policing from evidence collection to how officers perform their duties while on patrol. One aspect of policing that is still in the throes of transformation is the role of the police psychologist. Picice psychologists have moved from a beginning of counseling police officers involved in critical incidents (see Kurke & Scrivner, 1995) to a broad range of law enforcement related activities. The traditional aspects of their jobs such as providing assistance to crisis negotiation teams, conducting counseling sessions for officers, and developing and presenting in-service and cadet training are part of an ever-changing picture of the police psychologist. Today's police psychologists operate at all levels of police department. Some of the newer roles to emerge in recent years are organizational and management consulting, counseling crime victims, and coordinating community involvement. This paper provides a framework for looking at both new and old roles of police psychologist and to argue for an expanded and better defined role within the policing profession.     

Good cop—Bad cop: Problem officers,law enforcement culture,and strategies for success

Police officers are the only professionals mandated by society to use discretionary coercive physical force as a necessary component of fulfilling their duty to maintain public safety and uphold the law. If community policing is to prevail as an effective and credible style of law enforcement, the legitimate use of competent police authority will continue to be a vital issue. This article analyzes the types of officer problems and problem officers that can harm community policing efforts. These include (1) individual factors, such as attitudes, personality traits, and psychological disorders; (2) police-citizen interaction factors, such as interpersonal dynamics and community attitudes; and (3) organizational factors, such as training and supervision, departmental philosophy, and the “cop culture.” The article then offers practical strategies for improving officer performance, including (1) selection and screening of officers; (2) training and supervision; (3) fitnessfor-duty evaluations; (4) effective supervision and discipline; (5) coaching and counseling strategies; and (6) the most productive use of psychological services. Throughout this discussion, the concept of the police officer as a law enforcement professional is emphasized as essential for guiding public safety policy into the 21^st century.     

Impact of deception detection errors on public's trust in the police

Purpose. The present study explored the public's attitude towards errors in police officers’ detection of deception. Based on findings on trust in the police after responses to terrorist threats, we predicted a positive influence of a correct credibility assessment and of a risk‐averse response bias of police officers on public's trust. Methods. A general population sample (N= 151) read a hypothetical scenario concerning a credibility judgment and indicated their trust in the officers making the judgment. Decision outcome was manipulated by varying the four outcomes of a signal‐detection task, namely, Hit, Miss, False Alarm, and Correct Rejection. Results. In line with findings on trust in the police following responses to terrorist threats, people trusted police officers more if they judged the credibility of a suspect correctly. Moreover, officers who disbelieved the suspect's statement were trusted more than officers who believed, independently of outcome correctness. Furthermore, this effect was moderated by individual differences in error weighting. Conclusions. In sum, these findings indicate that lie‐biased credibility judgments made by police officers are supported by the public and increase their trust in the police. In addition, the present findings suggest that an asymmetrical weighting of judgment errors is a relevant factor in explaining the development of and attitude towards lie bias.     

Victims’ perceptions of the police response as a predictor of victim cooperation in the Netherlands: a prospective analysis

The current study prospectively explores whether crime victims’ willingness to cooperate with the police is predicted by victims’ perceptions of police officers’ behaviour with regard to their case through their perceptions of police legitimacy. Structural equation modelling was used to examine the interrelationships between the study variables while controlling for baseline values among a sample of 201 crime victims in the Netherlands. Results indicate that victims’ perceptions of procedural justice and police performance were predictive of both indicators of perceived police legitimacy (i.e. obligation to obey the law and trust in the police). Moreover, victims’ willingness to cooperate with the police was indirectly predicted by victims’ perceptions of procedural justice and police performance, through their perceptions of obligation to obey the law. These findings suggest that police officers may play an important role in stimulating victims’ willingness to cooperate with the police by treating victims fairly and by taking investigative actions to solve the crime.     

Organizational Climate, Perceived Citizen Support, and Job Satisfaction of Police Officers: Findings from the Post-Grand Reform Era in South Korea

Two major police reforms were introduced in South Korea in 1991 and 1999 to help bring about a shift from a colonial style of policing to a form more prevalent in developed economies pursuing the rule of law, observance of human rights, and the practice of democratic policing. We conclude that the findings from the present study, drawing on a survey of a national sample of 406 South Korean police officers, offer modest support for the efforts of the Grand Reform in its impact on police officers?? satisfaction with promotion and salary and benefits. While few demographic characteristics, with the exception of age and years of experience, were associated with job satisfaction, there is strong evidence for the relationship between organizational characteristics and job satisfaction. Management support and perceived citizen support of police are associated with both measures of satisfaction, promotion and salary/benefits, while the police officers?? relationship with their supervisors is less than stellar. Finally, officers who believe that the primary operating philosophy of the police is to serve the government appear to be satisfied with their jobs relative to their opportunity for promotion, which is perhaps a more critical measure for them than salary and benefits, reflecting the presence of a police organizational climate that is still rooted in the historical military culture of Korean police. The findings from this study suggest that more efforts are warranted in improving organizational climate if officers are to believe their primary goal is to serve the citizen, a fundamental element of democratic policing.     

Cynicism: A factor in corrections work

Cynicism has long been known to be a characteristic in police work. A research study was undertaken to determine levels of cynicism commonly found among corrections workers. A twenty-question cynicism test, based on the one used by Niederhoffer in his study of New York City police officers, was used, but it was modified to fit the correctional setting. Results indicated a moderátely high level of operating cynicism in corrections officers, especially in those who work in “treatment” institutions.     

Spirituality and health outcomes among police officers: empirical evidence supporting a paradigm shift

The negative impact of traumatic and other work-related stressors on the health of police officers is well-documented. Spiritual development is also commonly mentioned in the professional literature as an effective means of protecting officers from the ill-effects of policing, reportedly resulting in improved health and wellness outcomes. However, few empirical studies have been conducted to support claims regarding spirituality and police officer health. The present study investigated what types of spiritual practices police officers used, the relationships between spiritual effort and spiritual growth regarding various psychological and stress-related symptomatology, and whether differences in psychological and health outcomes existed between police officers engaging or not engaging in spiritual practice (N = 193). With one exception, the results do not support the notion that enhanced spirituality is associated with lower illness symptoms or perceived stress. Rather, opposing findings were demonstrated involving positive associations between spiritual growth and distress. Spiritual effort, however, was inversely associated with alcohol use, a behavioral-based coping mechanism. Implications of these findings are discussed, and suggestions for reconceptualizing police health and spiritual practices are introduced.     

The Psychological Impact on Police Officers of Being First Responders to Completed Suicides

When a suicide is completed, police officers are often among the first responders. Little attention has been paid to the emotional and psychological impact on the police officer in this specific situation. This study examines the effects encounters with completed suicides have on the emotional and psychological well-being of the police officer. This is a qualitative study, which intends to bring alive the feelings, thoughts, actions, choices, and challenges of police officers who have encountered completed suicides as imparted through participants' stories. Interviews were done with eight police officers. In addition, interviews were done with a coroner, a police chaplain, and a police psychologist to add some unique perspectives to the police officers’ experiences of encountering completed suicides. Interviews were done in a semi-structured, focused format involving an ongoing fine-tuning of questions. The overarching finding reveals the central role played by police culture in shaping how police officers come to perceive this experience, and how they subsequently choose to mediate it. This study identifies ten strategies police officers use to mediate this experience, and discusses the possible psychological consequences of employing each strategy.     

Occupational stress and psychological functioning in law enforcement officers

Law enforcement officers experience a variety of stressors because of their police work responsibilities. The use of avoidance coping in order to cope with emotions, thoughts, and memories of traumatic or stressful events may explain increases in occupational stress and poorer psychological functioning. In this study, avoidance coping, occupational stress, and psychological distress were assessed in law enforcement officers. The sample was majority Caucasian, male, and married with a mean of 12.4 years of law enforcement experience. Results indicated that participants reported high levels of psychological distress as compared to an adult male non-patient sample. The use of avoidant coping was associated with higher levels of organizational stress. Additionally, a predictor of psychological distress was the use of avoidant coping strategies and high levels of occupational stress, respectively. Implications of these findings concerning the role of workplace acceptance in a law enforcement setting are discussed. Authors’ Note: Significant institutional support was provided by the police administration to conduct this study. The authors would like to thank all of the police officers that took their time to participate in this study. This study was funded by a fellowship from the Jim Mikawa Ethnic Minority Fund. Data collection was provided by Rebecca M. Pasillas. Natalie M. Rice. Kathleen M. Palm. Leah, M. Leonard, and Lindsay Gray.     

Modeling job stress among police officers: interplay of work environment,counseling support,and family discussion with co-workers

Existing literature indicates that various factors affect police stress. This article uses data from the ‘Work and Family Services for Law Enforcement Personnel in the United States, 1995’ downloaded from the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research (‘ICPSR’) website. Respondents include 594 sworn police officers from 21 agencies in New York City. Using structural equation modeling, results indicate that sex, race, education, and tenure do not have a direct influence on total job stress, but have a direct impact on family discussion with co-workers, counseling support, and negative working environment. Rank has a direct impact on total job stress, negative working environment, and family discussion with co-workers. In addition, both negative working environment and counseling support directly impact police total job stress.     

Is the Public Willing to Help the Nigerian Police During the Boko Haram Crisis? A Look at Moderating Factors

This paper sought the opinion of 200 Nigerians on their willingness to cooperate with the police during the Boko Haram crisis. Public perceptions of police effectiveness during the crisis, residence location, gender and religious affiliation were used as moderators. Data was analysed using an explanatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling. Results indicated a strong association between perceived effectiveness and willingness to report to the police with respondents who question the effectiveness of the police being less likely to be willing to report criminal activity about Boko Haram. Further to this, the impact of religion on willingness to report was at least partially mediated by perceived effectiveness of the police with the results showing that Christian respondents perceived the police as less effective. Females and those living in the north were significantly less willing to report criminal activity to the police. The findings are discussed in relation to the BH crises and directions for future research are given.     

Job satisfaction: validating Dantzker’s four-factor model using structural equation modeling

The purpose of this study was to examine the validity of the four-factor structure from a job satisfaction instrument. Dantzker’s job satisfaction instrument was designed to capture information on four factors: general administration, extras, job, and equipment. Using data from police officers that are middle management (n?=?136), we performed confirmatory factor analysis via structural equation modeling to validate that the four factors are actually capturing job satisfaction. The results of the study show that the four-factor solution fit the model satisfactorily. All of the factor loadings were large expect for one. The results suggest that the four-factor solution has proper validity to use with middle manager police officers. Post hoc simulation analyses (n?=?1000 replications) show that no bias in the factor loadings or standard errors was present in this analysis, and the study had sufficient statistical power.     

Cynicism and job satisfaction in policing: Muddying the waters

Since Niederhoffer’s (1969) pioneering work, police cynicism has been a staple in research on police officers and police work, various typologies of police officers and definitions of the police subculture or police personality rely to a greater or lesser degree on conceptions of cynicism and suspicion. More recent research has questioned both the validity of measures of cynicism and typologies of police officers. The present study examines the link between cynicism and job satisfaction which is implicit in the literature. Findings indicate not only that these two factors are correlated, but also that relationships reported between cynicism and other factors in policing are mirrored by correlations between those factors and a measure of job satisfaction. The question which arises is, to what degree are correlations reported in the literature spurious, resulting not from cynicism, as was thought, but from a more generic measure of job satisfaction?     

Police Psychology in Singapore: The Red Dot Experience

Despite developments in police psychology in North America and Europe, little is known about developments in other parts of the world. Yet, this knowledge will reinforce the development of the field of police psychology internationally and strengthen its scientific theories, practices and programs. This paper therefore traces the development of police psychology in Singapore for over two decades across four waves of development. This paper also describes the developments in three areas of police psychology (services to police officers, police operations and the police organization) and details the various police psychological services programs and services in Singapore. The paper concludes with a discussion on strategic concerns for police psychologists worldwide, arguing that there is a need to discuss the ‘what works, when and where?’ in police psychology, when it is applied across the world.     

Modifying the cognitive interview: countenancing forensic application by enhancing practicability

The UK investigative interview model advocates police officers use the cognitive interview (CI). However, research has indicated that many officers perceive the CI as too cumbersome, complex, and time consuming for some types of crime. With this in mind we investigate the efficacy of two CI procedures, which have been substantially modified to enhance forensic practicability and retain the empirically demonstrated CI superiority effect. Employing the mock witness paradigm, both are compared to the procedure currently taught to UK police officers. Participant's memorial performance revealed no differences across interview conditions for the amount of correct and incorrect recall. However, those interviewed using the modified procedures confabulated less and were more accurate. Considering type of information recalled (person, action, object, and surrounding), no differences were found across conditions for correct or confabulated type recall. However, the two modified CIs elicited fewer incorrect person and object information items. Further, they were shorter in duration than the current procedure. Hence, for frontline less serious crime, or in time critical situations, the modified procedures may be viable alternatives. These findings and their implications are discussed.