From Victim to Offender: The Effects of Male Initiated Violence on Women Arrested for Using Intimate Partner Violence

A number of theorists posit that most women who are arrested for using violence against their intimate partners are in-fact victims of IPV themselves and should be treated as such. However, in this population of women IPV arrestees empirical investigation has yet to explore how physical and emotional victimization experiences are associated with arrest related factors, propensity to be abusive or attitude toward using relationship violence. The current study explores these factors finding no difference in arrest factors between women who (a) deny abuse, (b) report rare/occasional abuse and (c) report frequent/very frequent abuse. However, mixed results were found with regard to participants’ responses on scales measuring propensity to be abusive and attitudes about using violence in marriage. Theoretical and practical related issues are addressed.     

Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence Amongst Women of Reproductive Age in Lagos,Nigeria: Prevalence and Predictors

Research on predictors of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) in Sub-Saharan Africa is contradictory, necessitating further investigation. This study sought the prevalence and predictors of IPV among women in Lagos, Nigeria. Questionnaire data from 934 women visiting an obstetrics and gynecology clinic in Lagos were analyzed using multivariable methods. The 1 year prevalence of IPV was 29%, with significant proportions reporting psychological (23%), physical (9%) and sexual (8%) abuse. In-access to information, women’s autonomy and contribution to household expenses independently predicted IPV. The findings provide new incites for IPV prevention in Lagos with implications for further research.     

Personality Disorder Symptoms in Women as a Result of Chronic Intimate Male Partner Violence

This study explores the personality disorder symptoms of women victims of intimate male partner violence (IPV), after controlling for the contribution of experiences of childhood abuse. Victims of both physical and psychological violence (n = 73) or psychological violence alone (n = 53) were compared with non-abused control women (n = 52). Information about sociodemographic characteristics, childhood abuse, and personality characteristics (MCMI-II) was obtained through face-to-face structured interviews. Women victims of IPV had higher scores than controls in schizoid, avoidant, self-defeating personality scales, as well as in the three pathological personality scales (schizotypal, borderline and paranoid). Both physical and psychological IPV were strongly associated with personality disorder symptomatology, regardless of the effects of childhood abuse. These findings underscore the need to screen for personality disorder symptoms in women victims of IPV when dealing with therapeutic interventions.     

Family Variables that Mediate the Relation Between Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) and Child Adjustment

This study examined the mediating roles of several family variables in the relation between IPV witnessing and children’s emotional and behavioral problems among 129 low-income, African American children ages 8 to 12. According to the mediational model tested, experiencing or witnessing IPV negatively impacted the following family variables: maternal psychopathology, family cohesion, and relatedness quality, which were subsequently associated with diminished child adjustment. These findings were stronger when child reports were considered and when the outcome variable was internalizing problems. Findings from this study support the value of targeting these variables in the development of culturally appropriate child witness interventions for low-income African American families. Recommendations for future interventions based on study conclusions are offered.     

The Co-occurrence of Child and Intimate Partner Maltreatment in the Family: Characteristics of the Violent Perpetrators

This study considers the characteristics associated with mothers and fathers who maltreat their child and each other in comparison to parents who only maltreat their child. One hundred and sixty-two parents who had allegations of child maltreatment made against them were considered. The sample consisted of 43 fathers (Paternal Family—PF) and 23 mothers (Maternal Family—MF) who perpetrated both partner and child maltreatment, together with 23 fathers (Paternal Child—PC) and 26 mothers (Maternal Child—MC) who perpetrated child maltreatment only. In addition, 2 fathers (Paternal Victim—PV) and 23 mothers (Maternal Victim—MV) were victims of intimate partner maltreatment and perpetrators of child maltreatment and 7 fathers (Paternal Non-abusive Carer—PNC) and 15 mothers (Maternal Non-abusive Carer—MNC) did not maltreat the child but lived with an individual who did. Within their family unit, 40.7% of parents perpetrated both intimate partner and child maltreatment. However, fathers were significantly more likely to maltreat both their partner and child than mothers and mothers were significantly more likely to be victims of intimate partner violence than fathers. PF fathers conducted the highest amount of physical and/or sexual child maltreatment while MC and MV mothers perpetrated the highest amount of child neglect. Few significant differences between mothers were found. PF fathers had significantly more factors associated with development of a criminogenic lifestyle than PC fathers. Marked sex differences were demonstrated with PF fathers demonstrating significantly more antisocial characteristics, less mental health problems and fewer feelings of isolation than MF mothers. MC mothers had significantly more childhood abuse, mental health problems, parenting risk factors and were significantly more likely to be biologically related to the child than PC fathers. This study suggests that violent families should be assessed and treated in a holistic manner, considering the effects of partner violence upon all family members, rather than exclusively intervening with the violent man. Requests for reprints should be sent to Louise Dixon, Center for Forensic and Family Psychology, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom.     

No One Type of Intimate Partner Abuse: Exploring Physical and Non-Physical Abuse Among Intimate Partners

Although research into intimate partner abuse has expanded throughout the past several decades and increased our understanding of this multi-faceted phenomenon, the vast majority of empirical work is still focused almost exclusively on physical violence—against women in particular. Although a crucial issue in our society, physical violence against women is only one facet in an array of possible abusive behaviors toward an intimate partner. Researchers have long acknowledged the existence of multiple forms of non-physical abuse. These types of abuse have received little research attention, however, and are commonly lumped together simply as “non-physical” or “emotional” abuse. There is no reason to believe, however, that all forms of non-physical abuse are the same, whether in intensity, frequency, or co-existence with physical violence. The current study attempts to disentangle the multiple types of nonviolent abuse to examine prevalence, differences by sex, and its relationships to physical abuse. Using Tjaden and Thoennes’ (1998) survey data, this study examines the prevalence of different types of non-physical abuse, both in the general population and among those experiencing physical violence Findings indicate that non-physical partner abuse is more common than physical and that non-physical abuse does not show striking sex differences, as is commonly believed. There is strong evidence that some types of non-physical abuse serve as clear risk factors for physical abuse and may increase risk of more frequent violence among those already being abused. These relationships do not, however, differ by sex. Implications for future research are discussed.

Articulated Thoughts of Intimate Partner Abusive Men during Anger Arousal: Correlates with Personality Disorder Features

This study extends Eckhardt et al. (Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66:259–269, 1998) research on cognitive correlates of anger arousal among intimate partner abusers (IPA; n = 130), distressed/nonviolent (DNV; n = 27), and satisfied/nonviolent men (SNV; n = 21) during a standardized anger induction task by examining variables thought to differentiate batterers. Variables pertinent to the Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart (Psychological Bulletin, 116:476–497, 1994) typology—borderline and antisocial personality, psychopathy, general violence, and partner violence—were correlated to articulated cognitive distortions. Since between group comparisons were not significant, articulated anger was correlated with antisocial, borderline, and psychopathic features. Borderline personality features correlated positively with articulations reflecting jealousy. Articulated themes were more consistently related to psychopathology than to violence, suggesting that tailoring treatments to personality features of clients may prove fruitful.     

Drinking,Alcohol Problems and Intimate Partner Violence Among White and Hispanic Couples in the U.S.: Longitudinal Associations

This paper examines longitudinal associations between drinking, alcohol problems and male-to-female (MFPV) and female-to-male partner violence (FMPV) in a national sample of White and Hispanic couples in the United States. The study uses general population household survey longitudinal data collected in 1995 and in 2000. Subjects (18 years or older) constitute a random sample of married and cohabiting couples in the 48 contiguous United States. In 1995, a total of 1,635 couples completed the interview for a response rate of 85%. In 2000, face-to-face interviews were completed with 1,392 couples in their homes. The present analyses include 406 White and 387 Hispanic couples, who remained intact at the follow-up. Alcohol volume, alcohol problems, MFPV and FMPV in 1995 significantly predicted these same behaviors 5 years later. For White couples, female alcohol problems predicted FMPV in 1995. For Hispanics, female alcohol problems predicted FMPV only in 2000. The relationships between the three alcohol variables and MFPV and FMPV are not static, changing across ethnic groups over time. Findings suggest that once a behavior is present, it tends to be a strong predictor of that same behavior in the future.     

Intimate Partner Violence within the Chinese Community in San Francisco: Problem Gambling as a Risk Factor

A total of 31 Chinese community members (8 males and 23 females) were recruited from three social service agencies in San Francisco (Donaldina Cameron House, Richmond Area Multi-Services, and St. Mary’s Chinese Center) to participate in a study examining the relationship between problem gambling and intimate partner violence (IPV). A survey approach was taken which assessed the participants’ demographic characteristics including age, gender, country of birth, and employment, as well as factors relating to their intimate partners, including partner’s alcohol abuse and problem gambling. Younger participants and those whose partners were problem gamblers were more likely to experience IPV. However, partner’s problem gambling was a significant predictor only at the ten-point cutoff on the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) (Lesieur and Blume, American Journal of Psychiatry, 1987) and not at the five-point cutoff. Chinese participants whose partners were problem gamblers (SOGS ≥ 10) were 27.5 times more likely to experience IPV. Findings are discussed and social work practice, policy, and research implications are highlighted.

Etiological Similarities Between Psychological and Physical Aggression in Intimate Relationships: A Behavioral Genetic Exploration

Previous research has consistently shown that there is a strong association between psychological and physical aggression in intimate relationships. Theories as to why this association exists include that they have a single underlying etiology with differing thresholds, or they have separate etiologies and there is a two-step process by which psychological aggression moves to physical. The current study suggests that these two theories are not necessarily competing theories. The genetic and environmental covariance between psychological and physical intimate partner aggression were examined in 134 monozygotic (MZ) and 41 dizygotic (DZ) twin pairs. Results showed that psychological and physical aggression have largely the same genetic etiology, and any differences between the two are a function of differing nonshared environmental influences.     

Problem Drinking, Unemployment, and Intimate Partner Violence among a Sample of Construction Industry Workers and their Partners

The purpose of this study is to determine the contribution of male unemployment and each partner’s problem drinking to risk for male-to-female partner violence (MFPV) and female-to-male partner violence (FMPV) among a sample of construction industry workers and their spouses/partners. Participants in the sample (n = 848 couples) completed cross-sectional health behavior surveys. Multivariate logistic regression models of MFPV and FMPV, with adjustment for demographic and psychosocial variables, were developed. Approximately 20% of couples reported MFPV, and 24% reported FMPV. Results indicated that couples in which the male was a problem drinker, and in which the male worker reported being currently unemployed, were at risk for MFPV. Number of months unemployed by the male worker was significantly associated with FMPV, but problem drinking was not associated with this outcome. Male and female impulsivity were significantly associated with risk for MFPV and FMPV, and the male’s report of adverse childhood events was associated with increased likelihood of MFPV. There was no evidence for the effects of unemployment being moderated (exacerbated) by problem drinking. Workplace-based prevention efforts may be a feasible and important strategy to reduce problem drinking and partner violence among high-risk occupational groups.     

Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence Among Married Women in the Military: Type, Level, Directionality and Consequences

While separate evidence exists that married military women have high rates of both intimate partner violence victimization and aggression, little is known about the context of this violence, including the extent to which the violence committed toward and by military women is physical, psychological or sexual, whether the violence is unilateral or bi-directional, and the extent of injury sustained or inflicted. In order to gain a more multi-dimensional understanding of the violence in the lives of military women, this study involved 248 enlisted females who completed a self-report survey about themselves and their spouses’ behavior. Results indicate that the majority of violence reported was bi-directional and symmetrical in terms of type and level of severity. However, enlisted females were more than three times as likely to be victims of unilateral severe violence as their male civilian spouses. Demographic factors associated with these patterns of violence were also identified.

Does Intimate Partner Violence Epidemiology Differ Between Homes With and Without Children? A Population-Based Study of Annual Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors

We sought to determine whether intimate partner violence (IPV) risk factors differed depending upon the presence of children in the home, and to estimate the annual prevalence of IPV first in the general population and then in homes with and without children. We analyzed data from a cross-sectional random sample of 6,836 women in southeastern Pennsylvania interviewed by telephone in 2004. The magnitude of association between IPV and risk factors varied between homes with and without children for women’s alcohol problems (with children, odds ratio (OR) 7.7; 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.9, 20.9; without children, OR 2.4; 95% CI 0.9, 6.0), and mental health problems (with children, OR 4.0; 95% CI 1.8, 8.9; without children, OR 3.0; 95% CI 1.6, 5.7). Poverty was significantly associated with IPV only in homes without children (OR 3.6; 95% CI 1.9, 7.2). Annual IPV prevalence was 1.2% overall, 1.4% in homes with children, and 1.1% in homes without children. One in 63 children lived in a home with IPV. Differences in IPV risk factors in homes with and without children suggest distinct underlying IPV mechanisms or consequences in these contexts.     

Marital Satisfaction and Marital Discord as Risk Markers for Intimate Partner Violence: A Meta-analytic Review

A meta-analysis investigating the relationship between marital satisfaction/discord and intimate partner violence (IPV) in heterosexual relationships was conducted with 32 articles. Overall, a small-to-moderate effect size (r = −0.27) indicated a significant and negative relationship existed between marital satisfaction/discord and IPV. Moderator analyses found no differences between effect size based on construct examined (discord or satisfaction). However, the magnitudes of observed effect sizes were influenced by other moderator variables, including the use of standardized versus non-standardized measures, gender of the offender and victim, role in the violence (perpetrator versus victim), and sample type (clinical versus community). The data suggests that gender is an especially important moderator variable in understanding the relationship between marital satisfaction/discord and IPV.     

Assessing Readiness to Change among Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence: Analysis of Two Self-report Measures

Recent interest in the construct of motivation to change among male perpetrators of intimate partner violence (IPV) has led to development of two self-report measures of this construct: the University of Rhode Island Change Assessment for Domestic Violence (URICA-DV; Levesque et al. 2000) and the Safe at Home Inventory (SAH; Begun et al. 2003). We examined the internal structure of these instruments using confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses in a sample of 199 male IPV perpetrators waiting to begin court-mandated batterer intervention programs. Results indicated that the scales had adequate internal consistency. However, using confirmatory factor analyses, the hypothesized structural models of each instrument fit the data poorly. Subsequent models suggested by a series of exploratory factor analyses failed to improve model fit substantially for both scales. For the URICA-DV, a 3-factor model including items from the Precontemplation, Contemplation, and Action subscales fit the data adequately. No acceptable model fit could be found for the SAH. Intercorrelations among similar subscales across the two inventories suggested only a modest degree of intercorrelation (r’s = 0.16–0.52), and a factor structure more dependent on scale of origin than item latent content, suggesting that the scales assess different facets of the readiness to change construct. These results suggest that before the stages of change construct can be fully applied to the IPV area, more research and evaluation are needed on how to accurately assess abuser readiness to change.     

Gender Differences in the Connections Between Violence Experienced as a Child and Perpetration of Intimate Partner Violence in Young Adulthood

This paper uses longitudinal and nationally representative survey data to investigate the direct relationship between three forms of child maltreatment (neglect, physical abuse, and sexual abuse), and future intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration in the USA. We further examine the indirect effect that child maltreatment has on future IPV perpetration through the presence of youth violence perpetration, and the roles of socioeconomic factors on committing youth violence and IPV. Analyses indicate that gender differences exist for the developmental relationship between child maltreatment and young adult IPV perpetration, and the effects of socioeconomic factors on youth violence and IPV perpetration. For males, the direct effects of being neglected/physically abused as a child on IPV perpetration are not significant. However, the indirect effects of being neglected/physically abused on IPV perpetration through the presence of youth violence perpetration are significant. For females, the direct effects of being neglected/physically abused on IPV perpetration are significant. The indirect effect of being neglected on IPV perpetration is significant, while the indirect effect of childhood physical abuse is not significant. Childhood sexual abuse is not significantly directly associated with IPV perpetration for females; however, for males, it is the strongest (i.e., largest effect size) direct predictor of IPV perpetration. The indirect effects of childhood sexual abuse on IPV perpetration are not significant for both females and males.

Relationship of Substance Use/Abuse with Psychological and Physical Intimate Partner Violence: Variations Across Living Situations

This study addresses whether the relationship between illicit drug use/abuse measures and intimate partner violence (IPV) varies across socioeconomic status, racial status, and environmental indictors of a drug supportive culture. Data from 19,131 respondents who were living with intimate partners and had not been treated for a substance abuse problem in the last year and participated in the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse were analyzed. Marijuana use/abuse was a stronger predictor of IPV and psychological abuse for minorities, but was not a significant predictor of Caucasians’ IPV. Marijuana use/abuse also was a stronger predictor of IPV for those having a low socioeconomic status, but indicators of a drug supportive culture did not moderate the relationship. Minorities’ marijuana use/abuse increased their yelling and insulting behavior toward each other, and this psychological abuse mediated the effect of marijuana use/abuse on IPV. By contrast, stimulant use, sedative use, and alcohol abuse or dependence had independent direct effects on IPV after controlling for psychological abuse. Implications for research and policy are discussed.     

Childhood Sexual Abuse and Intimate Partner Violence among Women in Methadone Treatment: A Direct or Mediated Relationship?

Women in substance use treatment report rates of childhood sexual abuse and intimate partner violence that far exceed those reported by women in the general population. Previous research with nonrandom samples of women in substance use treatment suggests that there is a statistically significant relationship between childhood sexual abuse and intimate partner violence; however, little is known about the mechanisms of risk between these two public health concerns among this population of women. To address this gap in knowledge and to inform intervention strategies, this study examined direct and mediated relationships between childhood sexual abuse and intimate partner violence risk among a random sample of 416 women in methadone treatment. In addition to high rates of childhood sexual abuse (57.9%), intimate partner violence (lifetime prevalence, 89.7%; 6-month prevalence, 78.4%), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD, 28.6%), and global psychological distress (19.5%), findings suggest that the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and intimate partner violence is mediated by mental health problems and that women experiencing PTSD or global psychological distress are 2.7 and 2.4 times more likely to experience intimate partner violence than women without such experiences, respectively. Although not a mediator in this relationship, financial independence reduced women's risk of partner violence by two-thirds. The paper includes discussion of social learning and stress and coping theories to explicate the findings and to inform intervention strategies. This study is based, in part, on the first author's dissertation. A previous version of this paper was presented at the Society for Social Work and Research Annual Conference held in January 2005 in New Orleans, Louisiana. The following grants provided funding for this study: R01DA11027 and 3T32MH014623-22S1.     

Intimate Partner Violence,Psychological Distress,and Suicidality: A Path Model Using Data from African American Women Seeking Care in an Urban Emergency Department

Intimate partner violence (IPV) and suicidal behavior are major public health problems in the African American community. This study investigated whether or not IPV and suicidal ideation are correlated in urban African American women, and if the IPV–suicidal ideation link is explained by symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). With 323 abused African American females, path analysis revealed that: (1) IPV → depressive symptoms → suicidal ideation, and (2) IPV → PTSD symptoms → depressive symptoms → suicidal ideation. When evaluating abused women, depressive and PTSD symptoms and suicidal thoughts must be assessed. Interventions for reducing suicidal behavior in abused, low income African American women should reduce symptoms of depression and PTSD.