A comment on racial discrimination in prisons in England and Wales

This paper revisits systematically some of the evidence regarding racial discrimination against ethnic minority groups in prisons in the British context. Police racism has been openly discussed after the death of Stephen Lawrence, and the time is ripe to extend the discussion to the Prison Service. Based on limited data from Home Office reports, and some research on race and crime, there is real evidence of direct and indirect racial discrimination in prisons. Although we may find it difficult to admit that many current practices lead to discriminatory outcomes, prima facie some of the black and Asian prisoners reported being treated unfairly in many respects such as racial stereotyping and biased allocation of jobs; they perceived their treatment subjectively as racism. Finally, recommendations on what can and should be done to eradicate racial discrimination and how to research this sensitive topic are discussed.     

Traffic Stop Encounters: Officer and Citizen Race and Perceptions of Police Propriety

The continued legacy of racism and discrimination contribute to racial and ethnic differences in attitudes about the police. This research investigates citizen reports of proper police behavior during traffic stops to understand how officer/citizen race and ethnic pairs influence reports of impropriety. Analysis of 6,301 citizen reports of traffic stop encounters with the police from a unique national survey reveals that net of other important explanatory variables, African-Americans are less likely than whites to report proper police behavior when they encounter officers of any race. In addition, citizen reports indicate that the white/black and black/white officer/citizen encounters are significantly less likely to result in a report of proper police behavior than the white/white officer/citizen pairing. The results show limited support for the importance of citizen race and officer/citizen pairs in determining perception of police behavior.     

Conflict theory and racial profiling: An empirical analysis of police traffic stop data

Using data collected by the Richmond, Virginia Police Department, this article applies conflict theory to police traffic stop practices. In particular, it explores whether police traffic stop, search, and arrest practices differ according to racial or socioeconomic factors among neighborhoods. Three principal findings emanate from this research. First, the total number of stops by Richmond police was determined solely by the crime rate of the neighborhood. Second, the percentage of stops that resulted in a search was determined by the percentage of Black population. Third, when examining the percentage of stops that ended in an arrest/summons, the analyses suggest that both the percentage of Black population and the area crime rate served to decrease the percentage of police stops that ended in an arrest/summons. Implications for conflict theory and police decision-making are addressed.     

‘Inappropriate but not crime’? Policing racial hatred in Sweden

ABSTRACT

Racial bias afflicts police practices across the globe. Police discrimination against and mistreatment of racial and ethnic minorities is indeed difficult to underestimate. While much attention has been thus paid to racially biased policing, fewer studies examine the question from the reverse angle, namely how the police themselves combat racist offences. This article offers empirical insights into the policing of racial hatred in Sweden, a relevant yet relatively understudied case. Drawing on interviews with police officers and crime investigators, I discuss law enforcement perspectives, e.g. perceptions and reasoning in relation to the investigation of racist offences. Findings evince a rather narrow approach as regards the constructions of racist motive that involves a relatively restricted use of bias labelling in identifying hate incidents, especially when the boundaries of racial hostility are perceived as blurred. I argue that while such an approach may reflect a legitimate effort to demonstrate the existence of a motive behind an offence, it may also lead to an underestimation of more mundane forms of racism and their harms inflicted upon racialized individuals and communities. The results have implications for ‘recognition’ and ‘belonging’ as benchmarks of democratic policing, and ‘the promise of inclusion’ associated with combatting hate crimes.     

The Lawrence Inquiry – Incompetence, Corruption, and Institutional Racism

The inquiry into the murder of black teenager Stephen Lawrence in South London in 1993, which reported earlier this year, documents a catalogue of police incompetence and 'institutional racism'. The report also puts forward a number of far-reaching recommendations, echoing long-standing demands by the black community, for the reform of policing in Britain. Yet, in its approach to 'institutional racism', the report can be seen to have downplayed the need for a critical re-examination of policing policies and priorities at a strategic level. As a result, many of its key recommendations, in such areas as stop and search and the policing of racist crime, may prove ineffective. The government's commitment to 'anti-racism', following the Lawrence report, is also called into question by its subsequent decision to further restrict the rights of defendants and the ability of black people to defend themselves against racist police practices through the criminal justice system.     

The effect of community policing on fear and crime reduction,police legitimacy and job satisfaction: an empirical review of the evidence

Since the 1970s, community policing strategies or the language thereof have been purportedly initiated by a number of police departments nationwide to address notable issues such as crime, neighborhood disorder, and fear of crime. This policing philosophy has received considerable attention and support among scholars, police administrators, and criminal justice practitioners. This article synthesizes the available empirical evidence on the effectiveness of community policing initiatives using a variety of outcome measures. An overview of community policing is first provided with particular attention paid to its essence and objectives. Prior studies that have analyzed community policing effectiveness are then reviewed and assessed in terms of their methodological rigor and scientific merit. A discussion and future research considerations are presented to conclude.     

REPORTING CRIME TO THE POLICE, 1973–2005: A MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF LONG-TERM TRENDS IN THE NATIONAL CRIME SURVEY (NCS) AND NATIONAL CRIME VICTIMIZATION SURVEY (NCVS)*

Although many efforts have been made during the past several decades to increase the reporting of crime to the police, we know little about the nature of long-term crime-reporting trends. Most research in this area has been limited to specific crime types (e.g., sexual assault), or it has not taken into account possible changes in the characteristics of incidents associated with police notification. In this article, we advance knowledge about long-term trends in the reporting of crime to the police by using data from the National Crime Survey (NCS) and the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) and methods that take into account possible changes in the factors that affect reporting at the individual and incident level as well as changes in survey methodology. Using data from 1973 to 2005, our findings show that significant increases have occurred in the likelihood of police notification for sexual assault crimes as well as for other forms of assault and that these increases were observed for violence against women and violence against men, stranger and nonstranger violence, as well as crimes experienced by members of different racial and ethnic groups. The reporting of property victimization (i.e., motor vehicle theft, burglary, and larceny) also increased across time. Overall, observed increases in crime reporting account for about half of the divergence between the NCVS and the Uniform Crime Reporting Program (UCR) in the estimated magnitude of the 1990s crime decline—a result that highlights the need to corroborate findings about crime trends from multiple data sources.     

NEGOTIATING ORDER IN PATROL WORK: AN ECOLOGICAL THEORY OF POLICE RESPONSE TO DEVIANCE*

The recent renaissance of ecological research in criminology has brought with it a renewed interest in the relationship between crime and social control in local communities. While several researchers have noted that the police are a critical part of the community crime-control puzzle, there is very little research and no theory that addresses variation in police behavior across physical space. In an attempt to further understand police operations in local communities, this article offers a theory that explains how levels of crime and other forms of social deviance in communities affect police action. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of the theory for understanding how police behavior varies across physical space and how crime patterns develop and are sustained in local communities.     

Praxis and the disruption of organized crime groups

Although reports state the frequency of general crime has fallen across the developed world, no such trend is evident within organised crime. This has caused law enforcement agencies to search for more innovative approaches to tackle this global problem. Emerging prominently within this period has been a ‘disruption’ approach, albeit little systematic research currently supports its use. This study explores the way one English Police Force has tackled 15 Organised Crime Groups (99 individuals), using this type of approach. The study specifically examines the characteristics of the offender, the tactics used, and the re-offending levels following the police activity. It concludes by highlighting: the methodological challenges associated with the measurement of organised crime disruption; the ethical questions surrounding this type of intervention; and the overall effectiveness of the approach.     

Organized crime: Changing concepts and realities for the police

This brief presentation notes how the lack of clarity of what exactly is meant by “organized crime” as it is evolving, and particularly its transnational dimensions, can create problems and confusion for police and community alike. The role of the media is of particular significance in determining how both police and citizens perceive the scope and impact of organized crime. This in turn has implications for operations, priorities, and so on. The need to address a number of important areas that limit police effectiveness in countering organized crime, such as cooperation and sharing, appropriate resources, and measures of effectiveness, is also noted.     

Police use of force: an examination of the minority threat perspective

The minority threat perspective suggests that the criminal justice system may be one mechanism through which the majority group (i.e. Whites) maintains control of culturally dissimilar minority groups. Although numerous studies have examined the relationship between minority representation and various policing outcomes, few have extended this research to police use of force in the context of stop-and-frisk practices. Using stop, question, and frisk data from the New York Police Department, this study examines (1) whether racial and ethnic composition influences police use of force, and (2) whether an individual’s race/ethnicity interacts with the racial/ethnic composition of a police precinct to produce disparities in police use of force. The results provide partial support for the minority threat perspective.     

Perceptions of nursing home workers, police chiefs, and college students regarding crime against the elderly: An exploratory study

The growing elderly population means that crime will play a larger role in future quality of life issues. Even so, few criminal justice endeavors have examined how different actors perceive various aspects of elderly victimization. This paper examines the way four distinct groups—nursing home directors, nursing home employees, police chiefs, and university students—perceive crime against the elderly. Results show nursing home professionals perceive aspects of elderly victimization differently than do police chiefs and college students. Implications are provided.     

Disproportionate and Discriminatory: Reviewing the Evidence on Police Stop and Search

Eight years after the Lawrence Inquiry, the question of police powers to stop and search people in public places remains at the forefront of debate about police community relations. Police are empowered to stop and search citizens under a wide range of legislative acts and the power is employed daily across Britain. Far from laying the debate to rest, the Lawrence Inquiry prompted new research studies and fresh theories to explain the official statistics. We argue that the statistics show that the use of the powers against black people is disproportionate and that this is an indication of unlawful racial discrimination. If stop and search powers cannot be effectively regulated – and it seems that they cannot – then their continued use is unjustified and should be curtailed.     

Media coverage of organized crime—police managers survey

This brief presentation notes how the lack of clarity of what exactly is meant by “organized crime” as it is evolving, and particularly its transnational dimensions, can create problems and confusion for police and community alike. The role of the media is of particular significance in determining how both police and citizens perceive the scope and impact of organized crime. This in turn has implications for operations, priorities, and so on. The need to address a number of important areas that limit police effectiveness in countering organized crime, such as cooperation and sharing, appropriate resources, and measures of effectiveness, is also noted.     

Problem-oriented policing of transnational environmental crimes: a social harms approach

Since the publication of Herman Goldstein’s seminal article on Problem-oriented Policing (POP) in 1979, criminologists have attempted to apply its proactive methodology, with a large body of police work concentrating on how operational policing can benefit from the methodologies of POP, and specifically how events are recognised, approached and resolved as policing problems. Even then, most of these works ascribe a non-existing ontological value to events, supposing a bad actor against whom the good actor intervenes. This atomised, state-centrist notion of criminality has been discredited by social harms theory, which emphasises a reading of crime that reaches beyond the bureaucratic abilities of state criminal justice agencies. This article is aimed at illustrating how both POP and a social harms approach to crime can enrich each other, especially with regard to environmental crimes.     

论和谐社会构建中警察的犯罪防控角色

构建和谐社会成为时代的主题，防控犯罪是警察组织在推动和谐社会构建中的主要职责之一。但在社会综合治理的犯罪防控体系中，警察组织如何发挥特有的专业化作用、如何与其他社会组织共同协作，如何在多元化的犯罪防控主体中定位好自己的角色也是保证犯罪防控体系整体和谐需要思考的问题。     

Canteen Banter or Racism: is there a Relationship between Oslo Police's Use of Derogatory Terms and their Attitudes and Conduct towards Ethnic Minorities?

This paper explores the possible connection between the Oslo police's use of derogatory terms about the ethnic minority population, and actual police attitudes and conduct. The article's background is a research project focusing on the relationship between the police and Oslo's ethnic minorities. Qualitative methods were applied, including observations amongst rank‐and‐file officers in three police stations, interviews with 20 police officers of different rank and gender, as well as interviews with three samples of basically ethnic minority men. The background for the police's use of derogatory terms about the ethnic minority population is discussed, and possible institutional support is explored. The canteen language and attitudes towards ethnic minorities are seen in relationship to police experiences with them. Incidents observed during the field‐work are applied in the discussion of whether the police conduct may be influenced by their language and thus lead to unjustifiable targeting of ethnic minorities for stop and search. The observations of police conduct are perceived in the light of ethnic minority informants' police experiences. Although a direct connection between derogatory terms and actual conduct was not confirmed through the observations, the ethnic minority informant interviews suggest that such a connection may not be discarded and such language must therefore be avoided as it may increase the social distance between the police and ethnic minorities.     

The direct and indirect impacts of organized crime on youth,as offenders and victims

While organized crime has an impact on youth that is both broad and direct, frequently it has a more substantial impact as a consequence of its indirect effects that are noted particularly at the community level. This report explores the impact of both traditional and non-traditional organized criminal activities on youth. It also discusses the effect of organized crime on public perception, vulnerable youth populations, and police resource allocation including both supply and demand reduction measures. The research on organized crime in this context is limited in a number of areas. Further research on the impact of organized crime on youth, for example, should include issues related to public perception and the collection of appropriate data. An ethnographic approach could also help expand our understanding of some of the impacts. Policy regarding internal (police) and external (public) communication of the local impact of organized crime should be examined, as well as that related to data entry, police resource allocation, and the issue of supply and demand reduction.     

Immigrants’ interaction with the police in Finland: Is it distorted or inflammatory?

One enduring conflict area in police–minorities relations is the distrust of the police by minorities and consequently, the low level of confidence in the police among racial minorities. This stems from the impact of race in policing; and the perception that racial discrimination is a feature of criminal justice systems across the world has intensified. Moreover, race controversy is not new in police work. It is against this background that many police establishments are becoming increasingly frustrated by ethnic minority /immigrant allegations that they are being singled out as easy targets for police stop and search practices. In Finland, however, only little is known about immigrants’ views of police interaction, and perceptions of police discrimination in the country. Moreover, the police force in Finland may also be characterised by discriminatory mechanisms which are found in police institutions of other Western states where there has been more extensive research on the issue. The aim of the present study is to examine the attitude of immigrants toward the police by seeking to place the patterns of immigrants’ interaction with the police into context using their experiences as the basis of the analysis. The study also evaluates the impact of “ethnicity” in immigrants’ police experiences in our attempt to better understand how immigrants are subjected to stereotypical behaviour within the criminal justice system despite the fact that the police are tasked with carrying out their mandate to protect every citizen in the country. Thus, the interactions of immigrants with the police are our focus of analysis in our quest to understand new challenges brought about by the new immigrants in Finland. One thing is certain, however: police are not immune from racial conflict; as they continue to operate within our societies regardless of the ethnic composition of the country must be considered as a major policy issue of legal analysis. Therefore, the cultural and contextual nature of immigrants’ interaction with the police and the author's analysis will serve as the basis for assessing what may be required to ensure that discrimination is eliminated from the criminal justice system in the country.