Constancy and change in the U.S. age distribution of crime: A test of the “invariance hypothesis”

The recent controversy over the age relationship with criminal behavior can be traced to Hirschi and Gottfredson's (Am. J. Sociol. 89, 552–584, 1983) failure to define invariance. In this paper, I distinguish two types of invariance—parametric andmathematical form— that explains both the pattern of stability claimed by Hirschi and Gottfredson and the pattern of variability observed in more recent research. I then directly test for each type of invariance using age-specific arrest data for index offenses in the United States from 1952 to 1987. The results are largely consistent with recent research showing variability in the characteristics (i.e., parameters) of the age distribution of crime, but at the same time, the results provide evidence for a persistent, underlying mathematical form to the age distribution of crime, regardless of year or offense type.     

Reconsidering the unemployment and crime relationship: Variation by age group and historical period

Although considerable research has examined the direct effects of age and economic conditions on crime, relatively little work has investigated the joint influence that age and unemployment may have on rates of criminal behavior. This study extends prior research on the unemployment-crime relationship by testing simultaneously for (1) variation in the unemployment-crime relationship by age group and (2) variation in the unemployment-crime relationship over time. Age-specific arrest and unemployment time-series data for the United States from 1958 to 1995 are used to test these hypotheses. The two main findings indicate that (1) unemployment has a greater motivational effect on property crime among youth and young adults and (2) the unemployment-crime relationship varies over time, but in a way that appears to be more random than systematic. The implications for future research are discussed.     

The interaction of age with the correlates and causes of crime

We use data from a survey covering ages 15–94 to test the Hirschi/Gottfredson hypothesis that the correlates and causes of crime do not interact with age. These data reveal some nonchance interaction between age and demographic and theoretical predictors of criminal behavior that is localized in specific age categories and around particular variables and/or offenses. Overall, however, such interaction does not appear to be substantial, nor does it seem to have important consequences for generalizing from age restricted samples, particularly where generalization is of the most common type-from youth samples to adults. Therefore, despite some results contrary to a strict assertion that the causes and correlates of crime are the same for all ages, our findings support the thrust of the Hirschi/Gottfredson interaction hypothesis.     

青少年犯罪成因心理学研究新进展

青少年犯罪问题及其成因是各国普遍关注的焦点,也是犯罪成因研究的主要领域.青少年犯罪的成因相当复杂,已经广泛涉及到了生物神经科学、心理学、社会学、经济学以及政策等层面,迄今还没有令各方一致满意的定论.作为犯罪行为产生的最直接的因素--心理层面的理论研究则是青少年犯罪成因研究中非常有特色的领域.近年来,青少年犯罪成因理论研究逐渐采取了科际整合的观点,结合各领域各个学科的研究对各类青少年犯罪进行研究.青少年危险模式包括了社区、家庭和个人等因素,提供了多元化的取向.我国的学者长期囿于传统的横断研究,鲜有对青少年犯罪进行纵贯研究者,需要进行青少年犯罪纵贯研究的尝试与探索.     

Self-control Depletion and the General Theory of Crime

Criminological research on self-control focuses mainly on self-control failure. Such research has not, however, investigated the consequences of exercising self-control for the individual doing so. The present study investigates this issue within the framework of both criminological self-control theory and research on self-control depletion from social psychology, which depicts self-control as akin to a “muscle” that is “depletable” by prior use [Muraven and Baumeister (2000) Psycholog Bull 126:247–259]. Results are presented from a laboratory experiment in which students have the opportunity to cheat. Both “trait self-control,” as measured by the Grasmick et al. [(1993) J Res Crime Delinq 30:5–29] self-control inventory, and “self-control depletion” independently predicted cheating. The implications of these findings are explored for criminological perspectives on self-control and offender decision-making.

不同年龄下颌骨应力分布与骨折发病率的关系

目的分析不同年龄的下颌骨正中受力时,下颌骨三维有限元分布的差异。方法选用儿童、中年和老年的下颌骨,采用螺旋CT扫描,MIMICS软件建模,HYPERMESH软件划分单元,ANSYS进行三维有限元应力分布分析。结果三种年龄下颌骨最大的平均综合应力均出现在下颌角;中年的下颌颈有应力的分布,但老年和儿童的下颌颈几乎没有应力的分布。结论下颌骨应力的分布与骨折的发病率相关,不同年龄下颌骨应力的分布与骨折的高发年龄相关。     

不能犯判断标准之我见

近年国内一些学者开始对传统刑法学将不能犯作为未遂的类型之一的观点进行质疑,使不能犯成为理论界关注的问题。而笔者亦认为有严格区分未遂犯和不能犯的必要,故试图采用比较分析法,结合国内外关于不能犯的理论进行比较研究,建议我国采用具体危险说为标准区分不能犯和能犯未遂的界限,以实现刑法的社会保护机能和社会保障机能。     

犯罪观的认识论考察

从历史的角度考察 ,犯罪的认定从古至今经历了“重实质”到“重形式” ,再到“形式与实质统一”这样一个发展过程。从认识论的角度考察众多的犯罪本质观 ,规范违反说是最符合社会科学的价值特质的一种观点。在内容上 ,“罪的观念”是在社会一般规范与现实中发生的行为互动的过程中产生的 ,而社会一般规范是在各种观点的竞争和妥协过程中整合而来。规范违犯与法益侵害在层次上、作用场域上不同 ,但又相互影响和支撑。     

The natural history of extended co-offending

Most criminal acts are committed in very small groups or alone, and are repeated sporadically. But that is not always the case. Co-offending can include larger groups, cooperating sequentially or simultaneously, knowing each other or at least knowing about one another. We may use the term “extended co-offending” to subsume varieties of crime organization, crime networks, gangs, and criminal clusters. Extended co-offending also includes vaguely organized crime repetitions, and is a matter of degree. Criminal cooperation can be extended in time, space, numbers of persons involved, and types of criminal action. The extension process has a very wide span of possibilities. Drawing ideas from Max Weber and others, this paper suggests that the natural history of criminal cooperation progresses in four stages, with steeply decreasing prevalence: (1) primordial clusters of offenders, (2) small-scale charismatic leadership of offenders, (3) a medium-scale patrimonial system of offenders, and (4) and an extended patrimonial system of criminal cooperation. Primordial co-offending occurs on a very local level, with little or no hierarchy or systematic repetition. Extended criminal cooperation usually requires personal trust among offenders, favoring patrimony over formal organization.     

“量刑反制定罪论”不违反罪刑法定

量刑反制定罪论高举实质正义的大旗,强调量刑对定罪的反作用。然而认为该理论违反罪刑法定原则的批评比比皆是,目前学界主要存在滥用司法权、突破构成要件限制以及违反传统的罪刑关系这三个批评意见。抽象意义上的滥用司法权以及违反传统以罪定刑的观念无法形成有力的批评,但量刑反制定罪不能突破构成要件的限制,在此前提下的量刑对于定罪的反作用正是该理论的合理性所在,这种解释论意义上的量刑反制定罪并不违反罪刑法定原则。     

The relationship between the detection of acquisitive crime by forensic science and drug-dependent offenders

Drug- and nondrug-related acquisitive crime offences such as burglary, theft, and motor vehicle theft, were compared to assess whether drug abusers were more likely to be apprehended via forensic science techniques. Data were all acquisitive offences committed over a 6-year period within a police force area in England. Drug-dependent offenders committed a wider range of offence types than nondependent offenders, and they were significantly more likely to be detected via their DNA or fingerprints (p < 0.01). A logistic regression (n > 14,000) revealed a number of predictors that influence the detection of the crime by forensic techniques. The results indicate that a number of these predictors are of statistical significance; the most significant of these being drug use by the offender with sex, ethnicity, and employment status also being relevant. Age of the offender and number of offences committed were found not to be significant. Of the four hypotheses considered to explain this, the most likely was thought to be the physical and mental impact of drug use on crime scene behavior. Consideration is given to the disciplines of forensic science and forensic psychology working closely together to distinguish factors that influence crime scene behavior.     

论我国双层模式犯罪构成理论的建构

基于对中外犯罪构成理论的考究与分析,揭示并遵循犯罪构成理论的必要规则,正视中国大陆刑法的实然规定与犯罪构成理论的基本现实,应当建构我国双层模式的犯罪构成理论。犯罪成立必须具备本体构成符合与严重危害充足二个阶层要件;本体构成符合为第一层次,描述犯罪的基本轮廓,严重危害充足为第二层次,限定犯罪的实质底线。犯罪成立是本体构成与严重危害两者缩限评价的结论。     

政治对刑法犯罪理论体系的影响和制约

通过对德国从纳粹时期开始至今的犯罪理论体系的发展变化的历史的分析,阐明了政治对于犯罪理论体系的影响和制约,并以日本、前苏联和中国的事例论证了善政、恶政存在,对法律和法律理论都起着支配和控制作用,这样一个世界性的问题。     

An economic analysis of the post World War II decline in the Japanese crime rate

Since the end of World War II there has been a dramatic decrease in reported Japanese crime. Adult arrest rates have fallen steadily since the early 1950s and juvenile arrest rates have fallen since the early 1960s. An economic analysis of crime predicts that crime rates depend upon returns to crime relative to returns in legal pursuits and the certainty and severity of punishment. Regression analysis is used to test this theory using Japanese data. The empirical results indicate that the economic model does not outperform alternative naive models. However, the results are consistent with the hypothesis that increases in returns to legitimate work diminish both adult and juvenile crime. Unemployment affects some adult crimes but has little impact on juvenile crime. The share of the population in poverty has no significant impact on either type of crime. Increases in the certainty of punishment deters adult crime but there is little evidence that increases in either the certainty or the severity of punishment deter juvenile crime. There is weak evidence to support the hypothesis that increases in the severity of adult punishments deter crime.     

Social control theory: The salience of components by age,gender, and type of crime

Most social control theorists do not consider definitions of delinquency problematic. Beginning with the assumption that crime is a unitary concept, researchers have combined a variety of non-normative items to create additive delinquency scales. Rarely is consideration given to whether the causes of crime differ for distinct types of criminal activity. Furthermore, the classic social control model doesnot predict that bonding variables operate differently for distinct age and gender categories. Consistent with the structuring perspective, the present research attempts to refine the social control model by specifying conditions under which the model predicts different forms of delinquency. This study examines social control theory using survey data from middle- and high-school students (N=2926). Logit regression analysis revealed that the model which best explains personal crime differs from the model which best explains property crime. Also, certain components of the model were more powerful predictors of criminal behavior for different age-gender groups. The importance of model specification is demonstrated and the implications for social control theory are discussed.     

财产性利益是诈骗罪的对象

主张财产性利益是诈骗罪的对象,具有合目的性与具体的妥当性,并不违反罪刑法定原则(不属于类推解释);但是,只有当某种利益内容属于财产权,具有管理可能性与转移可能性,客观上具有经济价值,被害人丧失该利益必然同时导致财产损害时,该利益才能成为诈骗罪对象的财产性利益;至于债权凭证、财物的返还请求权、货款请求权、财物的交付"请求权"、债务的延缓履行是否刑法上的财产性利益,则需要具体分析。     

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SELF‐CONTROL: EXAMINING SELF‐CONTROL THEORY'S STABILITY THESIS*

Research on self‐control theory consistently supports its central prediction that low self‐control significantly affects crime. The theory includes other predictions, however, that have received far less scrutiny. Among these is the argument that self‐control is developed early in childhood and that individual differences emerging then persist over time. The purpose of this study is to provide a rigorous test of the stability thesis. First, we examine the extent of stability and change in self‐control for a national sample of U.S. children age 7 to age 15. Second, we consider whether parenting continues to affect self‐control during adolescence—a period after the point at which self‐control differences should be fixed. The analysis revealed strong absolute and relative stability of self‐control for more than 80 percent of the sample, and this stability emerged in large part as early as age 7. Contradicting the theory was a smaller portion of respondents (roughly 16 percent) who experienced substantial absolute and relative changes in self‐control even after the age of 10. Moreover, parental socialization continued to affect self‐control during adolescence, even after accounting for both prior self‐control and exposure to parental socialization.     

单位犯罪之恒定与代罚制之检讨

97《刑法》明确规定了单位犯罪,但是对于单位犯罪的理论争议并未消解于立法的＂一锤定音＂。单位犯罪的立法化使社会存在转化为法律存在,其乃社会发展之必然结果。单位犯罪之肯定首先在于民法上肯定单位的权利能力与行为能力以及法律对这种实在的拟制。但是,单位犯罪单罚制中代罚制所带来的不当后果,乃我们无法回避的现实与理论问题。对此,应当进行深入检讨。     

呼市越狱案的定性探讨

四名重刑犯杀害监狱警察,从监狱大门越狱脱逃,引起了社会各界的关注。中央领导高度重视,公安部发出通缉令,警方立即展开搜捕行动,并调动了一架小型飞机在空中搜索。经过67小时的搜捕将越狱罪犯捕获。本案非常典型、复杂,在预备、实施既遂、后续逃跑过程中,四名越狱罪犯犯下了累累罪行。笔者认为,以本案脱逃越狱的性质为切入点,立足于本案共同犯罪的整体基础,从脱逃越狱犯罪的整个发展过程来看,本案应该定性为故意杀人罪、组织越狱罪及后续行为构成的诸多罪实行数罪并罚。以此案来审视我国现行《刑法》的相关规定,应设立越狱罪。