Stature estimation from fragmentary femora: a revision of the Steele method

The skeletal remains presented to forensic anthropologists are often fragmentary. Previously described methods of estimating stature from segments of long bones have not proved satisfactory because of the difficulty involved in identifying the precise anatomical landmarks by which they are defined. This study represents an assessment of the feasibility of stature estimation from fragmentary femora. A sample of 200 males and females, blacks and whites (total sample = 800), was obtained from the Terry Collection. New regression equations for the estimation of maximum femur length and stature from three well-defined and easy-to-measure segments of the femur are presented. This technique represents an improvement over methods currently in use for estimating stature from femur fragments; the location of the anatomical landmarks and the accuracy of the prediction are enhanced. The applicability of these formulae to a modern forensic sample is addressed with regard to secular trends in stature increase and changes in body segment proportions.     

Age-related factors in the relationship between foot measurements and living stature and body weight

The measurements of feet and footprints are especially important in forensic identification, as they have been used to predict the body height and weight of victims or suspects. It can be observed that the subjects of forensic-oriented studies are generally young adults. That is to say, researchers rarely take into consideration the body's proportional changes with age. Hence, the aim of this study is to generate equations which take age and sex into consideration, when stature and body weight are estimated from foot and footprints dimensions. With this aim in mind, we measured the stature, body weight, foot length and breadth, heel breadth, footprint length and breadth, and footprint heel breadth of 516 volunteers (253 males and 263 females) aged between 17.6 and 82.9 years using standard measurement techniques. The sample population was divided randomly into two groups. Group 1, the study group, consisted of 80% of the sample (n = 406); the remaining 20% were assigned to the cross-validation group or Group 2 (n = 110). In the first stage of the study, we produced equations for estimating stature and weight using a stepwise regression technique. Then, their reliability was tested on Group 2 members. Statistical analyses showed that the ratios of foot dimensions to stature and body weight change considerably with age and sex. Consequently, the regression equations which include these variables yielded more reliable results. Our results indicated that age and sex should be taken into consideration when predicting human body height and weight for forensic purposes.     

Determination of sex from the metacarpals in a Thai population

Determination of sex using metacarpals was carried out on a sample of 249 skeletons from a Thai population (154 males and 95 females), ranging in age from 19 to 93 years. Six measurements were taken on each metacarpal, namely maximum length, medio-lateral base width, antero-posterior base height, medio-lateral head width, antero-posterior head height and mid-shaft diameter. Binary logistic regression equations were calculated for determining sex from these measurements. All metacarpals from both sides produced at least one equation that correctly allocated the skeletons with 80% or greater accuracy. In a comparative test using only individuals with no missing measurements (n=196), the most accurate equations for each metacarpal on the right side had pooled allocation accuracies ranging from 85.2% to 89.3%, with the best equation based on three measurements from the 5th metacarpal. On the left side, the most accurate equations for each metacarpal ranged from 83.2% to 89.8% correct allocation, with the best equation based on three measurements of the 2nd metacarpal. When the allocation accuracy for each sex is considered in addition to the pooled accuracy, the best equations involve the same three measurements of the 5th metacarpal on the right side, but shift to three measurements of the first metacarpal on the left side, with a pooled accuracy of 88.3%. The results of this study suggest that metacarpals can be used quite reliably for sexing in forensic contexts in Thailand.     

Body Height Estimation from Head and Face Dimensions: A Different Method*

Abstract: As there are cases brought for forensic examination where only the craniofacial region is available, estimation of stature from craniofacial dimensions is without doubt important in forensic cases. The study presented here attempts to estimate stature from craniofacial dimensions in the Turkish population. In the second phase of the study, the correlations between craniofacial dimensions and stature were also evaluated according to different head and face types. All measurements were taken from 286 healthy males with a mean age of 22.71 ± 4.86 years. The sample was then reclassified according to different head and face indexes. For the whole sample, correlation coefficients were low, changing only between 0.012 and 0.229. Thus, no significant increase in correlation coefficients was observed after the samples had been reevaluated according to different head and face types. As a conclusion, craniofacial dimensions are not good predictors for body height for the Turkish population.     

A Comparison of Coronary Artery Stenosis Estimates Made by Forensic Pathologists and Medical Students

Previous studies suggest cardiovascular pathologists are less accurate than noncardiovascular pathologists (e.g., clinical pathologists) in estimating the degree of coronary artery stenosis. To further investigate the effect of training on accurate estimation of coronary artery stenosis, we designed a study to compare the accuracy of estimates made by forensic pathologists versus medical students. Six forensic pathologists and twelve medical students each independently examined 24 images of coronary artery cross sections and gave an estimate of the degree of stenosis. When comparing all 24 images, the forensic pathologists had a median difference between the estimated percentage of stenosis and actual percentage of stenosis of −12.380 and the medical students had a median difference of −16.50 (p-value of 0.08542). In estimating the percentage of stenosis, training in forensic pathology does not guarantee significantly improved accuracy compared with medical students. Our study showed no consistent statistically significant difference between estimates given by forensic pathologists and by medical students.     

Sexual variation in bucco-lingual dimensions in Turkish dentition

Sexual differences in the human skeleton have been well studied in many populations. Odontometric analysis of the human sexual variation has been less investigated and mostly derived from the dentition of extinct populations. Turkey is situated in a unique location where populations from different regions mixed with each other and created a rich gene pool. One might anticipate that modern Turkish population is composed of genes from the Balkans, Caucasus, Middle East, Iran and further as well as from ancient Romans, Byzantines, Arabs and Asiatic Turks. It is clear that contemporary Turks are a mixture of these extant and extinct people and ideal to consider it a representative study population. The purpose of this study is to analyze dental dimensions and sexual variation in living Turks and develop forensic techniques to identify human remains from the teeth when any other technique is not available or not reliable. The study is composed of Ankara University dental students (50 male and 50 female casts, average age of 21 years). Bucco-lingual breadths from 14 teeth (I1 through M2 of the maxilla and mandible) are taken from the left side and analyzed using the discriminant function statistics. An intraobserver error test did not indicate any statistically significant difference between any two measurements. Results of the study revealed that males exceeded females significantly (P<0.001) in dimensions. Coefficient of variation was most obvious in I1s and I2s of both jaws in both sexes. Stepwise discriminant function statistics suggested that upper C, and lower C and M2 are the most contributory teeth to the function. Additional formulae were calculated for situation in which only one or a fragmented jaw is available for identification. Overall accuracy of sex diagnosis ranged from 73 to 77%. In conclusion this research supports earlier studies that sexual dimorphism is population specific. While dental difference between the sexes in several human populations has been found highly dimorphic, it was not found so in Turks and accuracy of classification remained low at about 77%. The difficulty or the lack of dimorphism comes from male subjects.     

Evaluation of Stature Estimation from the Database for Forensic Anthropology*†

Abstract: Trotter and Gleser’s ( 1 - 3 ) stature equations, conventionally used to estimate stature, are not appropriate to use in the modern forensic context. In this study, stature is assessed with a modern (birth years after 1944) American sample (N = 242) derived from the National Institute of Justice Database for Forensic Anthropology in the United States and the Forensic Anthropology Databank. New stature formulae have been calculated using forensic stature (FSTAT) and a combined dataset of forensic, cadaver, and measured statures referred to as Any Stature (ASTAT). The new FSTAT‐based equations had an improved accuracy in Blacks with little improvement over Ousley’s ( 4 ) equations for Whites. ASTAT‐based equations performed equal to those of FSTAT equations and may be more appropriate, because they reflect both the variation in reported statures and in cadaver statures. It is essential to use not only equations based on forensic statures, but also equations based on modern samples.     

New formulae for estimating stature in the Balkans

Recent studies of secular change and allometry have observed differential limb proportions between the sexes, among and within populations. These studies suggest that stature prediction formulae developed from American Whites may be inappropriate for European populations. The purpose of this investigation is to present more appropriate stature prediction equations for use in the Balkans to aid present-day identifications of the victims of genocide. The reference sample totals 545 white males obtained from World War II data. The Eastern European sample totals 177 males and includes both Bosnian and Croatian victims of the recent war. Mean stature for Eastern Europeans was obtained from the literature. Results show that formulae based on Trotter and Gleser systematically underestimate stature in the Balkans. Because Eastern Europeans are taller than American Whites it is appropriate to use this as an "informative prior" that can be applied to future cases. This informative prior can be used in predictive formulae, since it is probably similar to the sample from which the Balkan forensic cases were drawn. Based on Bayes' Theorem new predictive stature formulae are presented for Eastern Europeans.     

数字X线测量上肢长骨推算身高

目的应用数字X线测量上肢长骨,建立适合当代中国四川汉族人群长骨推算身高的回归方程。方法按纳入标准对365例四川汉族正常人进行身高测量及上肢的数字X线检查,测量上肢各长骨不同标志点之间的长度,用SPSS统计软件对各测量值与身高进行相关回归分析,并对回归方程进行回代检验。结果共建立27个一元回归方程以及3个多元回归方程,各方程都具有统计学意义。上肢长骨中,尺骨相关性大于桡骨,男性相关性大于女性,多元回归方程的准确性高于一元回归方程。结论放射学方法测量长骨推算身高是一项简单、实用的方法,更适合上肢尸块的个人识别,值得进一步研究。     

Stature and gender estimation using foot measurements

In forensic investigation difficulties are being experienced in the stature and gender estimation of bodies dismembered in mass destruction. So as to eliminate these difficulties, new methods are being developed. The aim of this study is to develop formulae for estimation of the stature and gender through foot measurements when necessary. For this purpose, the length, width, malleol height, navicular height measurements of the right and left foot as well as stature have been taken from the 249 subjects who are attending Medical Faculty of Dokuz Eylul University and School of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation in Turkey. In males, stature and foot measurements were higher than in females, and the difference between the average measures was significant. The highest correlation was observed in the right and left foot length for female, male and study (mix-gender group) groups when stature and foot measurement relations were evaluated. The lowest correlation was observed in foot width for the right foot in all groups but, differed in left foot measurements for each group. Formulae were obtained by using multiple regression analysis for stature estimation and logistic regression analysis for gender estimation. As a consequence, whilst stature estimation formulae, depending on the gender, allow 9-10 cm errors, those that are independent on the gender help make estimation with less than 4 cm errors. Gender estimation formula can help determine the gender with 95.6% accuracy via right foot measurements, and 96.4% accuracy via left foot measurements. In population similar to our subjects, stature and gender estimation can be made by using foot measurements.     

The core technique in the determination of age at death of skeletons.

This study proposed an histological method of estimating age at death in skeletons that uses a 0.4-cm-diameter core of cortical bone. Age-estimating regression equations were generated from data obtained from the analysis of bone cores taken from femurs, tibiae, humeri, and ulnas of cadavers. When the regression equations generated in this study were applied to eight forensic science cases, accurate ages at death were estimated.     

Is the length of the sternum reliable for estimating adult stature? A pilot study using fresh sterna and a test of two methods using dry sterna

Stature estimation is one of the four attributes of the biological profile obtained from human skeletal remains. The length of the long bones has been consistently used to estimate stature from regression equations, but these may be useless when dealing with fresh or decomposed mutilated remains. Until recently, there was no consistent assessment of the reliability of measurements of the sternum for stature estimation. The purpose of this paper is to test previously developed regression formulae for stature based on measurements of the dry sternum and to assess the reliability of measurements of the fresh sternum in estimating stature. The formulae developed by Menezes et al. and Singh et al. were applied to a sample of 5 known stature skeletons from the identified human skeletal collection curated at the National Museum of Natural History, in Lisbon, Portugal. Testing of these formulae showed that estimated stature confidence intervals do not allow discrimination between individuals with similar stature. The length of the fresh sternum was measured on a sample of 45 male individuals autopsied at the National Institute of Legal Medicine - North Delegation (Porto, Portugal). Cadaver length was regressed on sternum length and a simple linear regression formula was obtained. The regression model provided a 95% confidence interval of 13.32 cm and a correlation coefficient of only 0.329. Compared to other studies, regression formulae based on the length of the sternum provided considerably larger standard errors than that based on long bone lengths. These results suggest that the length of the sternum has limited forensic value and relatively low reliability in estimating stature from mutilated human skeletal remains, either skeletonized or fresh.     

Calculating the exclusion probability and paternity index for X-chromosomal loci in the presence of substructure

There has been recent interest in the use of X-chromosomal loci for forensic and relatedness testing casework, with many authors developing new X-linked short tandem repeat (STR) loci suitable for forensic use. Here we present formulae for two key quantities in paternity testing, the average probability of exclusion and the paternity index, which are suitable for X-chromosomal loci in the presence of population substructure.     

Skeletal height reconstruction from measurements of the skull in indigenous South Africans

Stature reconstruction is important as it provides a forensic anthropological estimate of the height of a person in the living state; playing a vital role in the identification of individuals from their skeletal remains. Regression formulae for stature estimation have been generated for indigenous South Africans based on measurements of long bones of upper and lower extremities and the calcaneus. Since these bones are not always available for forensic analysis, it became necessary to use other bones such as the skull for stature estimation. The aim of the present study was to investigate the usefulness of certain measurements of the skull of indigenous South Africans in the estimation of adult stature. Ninety-nine complete skeletons obtained from the Raymond A. Dart Collection, School of Anatomical Sciences of the University of the Witwatersrand, were used. Total skeletal height (TSH) was calculated for each skeleton using the Fully's (anatomical) method. Furthermore, six variables were measured on each skull. TSH was regressed onto these cranial measurements in order to obtain regression formulae. The correlation coefficients obtained ranged between 0.40 and 0.54. The range of the standard errors of estimate from the current study (4.37 and 6.24) is high in comparison to that obtained for stature estimation based on intact long bones and the calcaneus. Therefore, the equations presented in this study should be used with caution in forensic cases when only the skull is available for human identification.     

Do century-specific equations provide better estimates of stature? A test of the 19-20th century boundary for the stature estimation feature in Fordisc 3.0

A sample (n=28) from the Terry Collection was selected to include only White males who were born and had their entire growth and development period before 1900 to assess the effects year of birth have on accuracy and precision when estimating stature. Using the computer application Fordisc 3.0, stature was estimated using the humerus, radius, femur, and tibia equations developed from White males born in the 19th Century and the 20th Century. The 19th Century White male equations did not consistently provide the most precise and accurate estimates of stature. The 20th Century equations provide results that were as good as or slightly better than the 19th Century equations for the humerus, radius and femur. The 20th Century equations provided notably better results for the tibia. There is a great deal of evidence that there are clear positive secular changes in most of North America in the last 100-125 years, but the division commonly advocated in a forensic context at the year 1900 has no positive effect on accuracy or precision when estimating stature.     

Determining body height by the femur and femoral fragments

Using a forensic series of human specimens, the reliability of frequently-cited formulas applied to estimate body height on the basis of the femur was examined with regard to their accuracy. Very few proved reliable enough to render accurate results. In most cases, less than half of the actual body heights were found to have predicted within the single estimation interval. The method to be used for such estimations must therefore be selected with great care. Even with partial femur measures, it is possible to estimate reliably body height. In particular, the circumference of the diaphysis centre correlates well with body height. The regression equations calculated in the present study, however, reveal greater errors in estimates than the formulas worked out using the total femur length.     

Estimation of stature from hand and handprint dimensions in a Western Australian population

As part of the formulation of a biological profile, the estimation of stature is an important element that provides useful data towards narrowing the pool of potentially matching identities. Recent literature has demonstrated that anthropometry of the hand has considerable promise for the accurate estimation of stature; although the technique has only been tested in a relatively limited range of populations. The aim of the present study, therefore, is to assess the reliability and accuracy of using anthropometric hand measurements for the estimation of stature in a contemporary Western Australian population; we also evaluate whether stature can be accurately estimated from the measurement of handprints. The study sample comprises 91 male and 110 female adult individuals. Following the measurement of stature, seven measurements are taken on each hand and its corresponding print. To establish the reliability of acquiring these measurements, a precision study was performed prior to primary data collection. Measurements data are analysed using basic univariate statistics and simple and multiple regression analyses. Our results show that the degree of measurement error and reliability are well within accepted standards. Stature prediction accuracy using hand and handprint measurements ranges from ±4.74 to 6.53cm, which is comparable to established skeletal standards for the hand. This study provides new forensic standards for the estimation of stature in a Western Australian population and also demonstrates that the measurement and analysis of handprints affords a novel source of profiling data that is statistically quantified.     

Confidence interval of the likelihood ratio associated with mixed stain DNA evidence

Likelihood ratios are necessary to properly interpret mixed stain DNA evidence. They can flexibly consider alternate hypotheses and can account for population substructure. The likelihood ratio should be seen as an estimate and not a fixed value, because the calculations are functions of allelic frequency estimates that were estimated from a small portion of the population. Current methods do not account for uncertainty in the likelihood ratio estimates and are therefore an incomplete picture of the strength of the evidence. We propose the use of a confidence interval to report the consequent variation of likelihood ratios. The confidence interval is calculated using the standard forensic likelihood ratio formulae and a variance estimate derived using the Taylor expansion. The formula is explained, and a computer program has been made available. Numeric work shows that the evidential strength of DNA profiles decreases as the variation among populations increases.     

Stature estimation from tibia percutaneous length: New equations derived from a Mediterranean population

Stature is a fundamental anthropometric character to trace the biological profile of a person. In some cases, when dismembered or mutilated bodies are discovered in a forensic context, it is essential to estimate stature from single districts of the body. Nevertheless, to date and worldwide, there are only few population-specific studies on stature estimation from leg length and none of them concerns modern populations in southern Europe. We attempted to fill this gap, focusing on the estimation of stature from the length of the tibia in a Mediterranean population (Italians). We carried out the current study on a sample of 374 Italian university students of both sexes (age range: 19.9–34.4). Both, actual stature and percutaneous length of tibia were measured and new equations were developed for stature estimation. We tested separate regression equations for each sex, as well as an equation for remains, whose sex is unknown. To assess their reliability, the equations were tested on a holdout sample of 30 individuals from the same population. Moreover, results of new specific linear regression equations were compared to others from the literature. We demonstrated that the newly proposed formulae (for males and combined sexes) and the ones by Olivier (for females) provided the most reliable estimations of stature for southern Europeans.     

中国汉族男性肩胛骨测量值与身长的关系

目的　探讨中国汉族男性肩胛骨测量值与身长的关系。方法　测量了 2 0 7例已知身长的中国汉族男性肩胛骨的 14项指标 ,用测得的数据输入计算机 ,分 3个年龄段 ,运用多元线性回归分析法 ,求出肩胛骨测量值推算身长的方程式。结果　建立了用男性肩胛骨推算身长的 9个方程式 ,其复相关系数在 0 65 99至 0 5 192之间 ,标准差在 5 13 45至 6 3 93 1之间。结论　中国汉族男性肩胛骨测量值与身长呈现一定的相关关系。