From the Offences Against the Person Act 1861 to the Serious Crime Act 2015 - the development of the law relating to female genital mutilation in England and Wales

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is defined by the World Health Organization to include: ‘procedures that intentionally alter or cause injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons’. It is a practice that affects many females in England and Wales and as a result, specific legislation has been introduced to tackle it. This paper explores the development of the criminal and civil law relating to FGM in England and Wales. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the approaches adopted and considers whether they are effective. The paper concludes that the creation of a specific criminal offence has proved to be ineffectual; that the introduction of civil FGM protection orders is a more appropriate and effective means of combatting the practice and that legal measures need to be supplemented by non-legal interventions.     

论同性伴侣婚姻家庭权利的保护

传统观念认为婚姻是一男一女的结合，而同性恋者的性活动或性吸引力则指向同性的人群，所以同性伴侣就被排除在了婚姻法的保护范围之外。虽然就社会整体而言，同性恋群体是一个相对隐蔽的少数群体，但是同性伴侣的权益保护问题还是应当引起社会的重视，引起法律的关注。即使在我国当前从婚姻法上确认同性伴侣合法配偶身份的时机还不成熟，但我们还是应当鼓励和引导同性伴侣通过订立合同等其他方式保护自己的婚姻家庭权利。     

Boundaries of Legitimacy: Sex, Violence, Citizenship, and Community in a Local Sexual Economy

Studies of prostitution have overlooked the role of law in constituting the identities and sexual practices of women in the sex trade and defining the boundary between legitimate and illegitimate violence in the sexual economy. Drawing on field work with sex trade participants in a northwestern United States city, this paper explores how the cultural logic of modern liberal law shapes women's identities and interpretations of their actions. In positioning women in the sex trade as "sexual outlaws" to be managed and subjected to the full scope of legal authority, the law simultaneously limits women's citizenship and withdraws its protection. Moreover, in restricting women's ca-pacity to invoke fundamental legal rights, the law effectively sanctions "private" or extralegal forms of discipline and creates a space for violence. Given the paradoxical position these women hold as sexual outlaws on the one hand and frequent victims of physical and sexual assault on the other, I explore how they negotiate consent and resist violence.     

融环境教育于生活世界之中

环境法治需要特定类型的文化作为根基，这种类型的文化特点是公泉有强烈的环境权利意识。能自觉遵守法律，并在环境立法、执法、司法过程中能够广泛地参与。只有公束参与，环境法律文化结构中的观念文化与制度文化才能和谐统一，环境法治才可以实现。公泉法律意识的提高需要大众化的环境教育，公泉认同是环境权的本原。法科大学生作为公粟内的一个群体，对其进行环境法学专业化教育要立足于公粟生活世界基础上。     

Rape reform in Canada: Public knowledge and opinion

Rape reform legislation in Canada was designed to change: 1) the way sexual assault cases were processed by the criminal justice system and 2) public opinion about crimes of sexual aggression. This article reports findings from a representative survey of the Canadian public and an experimental analysis of the effects of the legislation on public knowledge and attitudes. Results from the nation-wide survey indicated that most people are unaware of the semantic shift (from the old language of rape and indecent assault to the new crimes of sexual assault). However, there is awareness of the substantive legal changes introduced by the rape reform legislation (such as the fact that husbands are no longer immune from criminal changes involving their wives). It is clear that rape reform legislation has affected public knowledge of statutory reforms regarding crimes of sexual aggression. Results from the experimental component of this research show that the new sexual assault label has not achieved one of the important goals, namely of changing public perceptions of the nature of crimes of sexual aggression. Indeed, one negative effect predicted by feminist writers seems to have emerged: sentencing decisions made by the public for the offense of rape were less severe when the incident was described as a sexual assault.     

Fantasy depictions of child sexual abuse: The problem of ageplay in Second Life

Abstract

This paper explores the arguments put forward for prohibiting the possession of fantasy images of child sexual abuse within the Coroners and Justice Act 2009, and applies them to sexual ageplay in Second Life. Sexual ageplay is the virtual act of simulating child sexual abuse using animated child characters operated by consenting adult users. The arguments underpinning the legislation centre on the issue of harm and the relationship between online, virtual behaviour and real world contact offences. It is argued that extant research does not support a causal connection, although some work on fantasy offence planning and online paedophilia chat groups suggests a link. Due to the lack of empirical work in the area it is concluded that legislation to criminalise such behaviour on grounds of harm causation is currently unjustified, although prohibition of sexual ageplay for known sex offenders is recommended. Further research into the extent, use and effects of sexual ageplay is required.     

International sex offender registration laws: research and evaluation issues based on a review of current scientific literature

In many jurisdictions, anyone convicted of a sexual offense is required to register with police, often for life. Nine different countries have now implemented sex offender registries in an attempt to protect the public from the perceived threat posed by sexual offenders. Yet such laws have been criticized as being overly inclusive, tying up limited law enforcement resources to track many offenders who pose little risk of sexual reoffending. This paper considers the available research evidence relevant to the effectiveness of such laws for the deterrence of sexual offending and the investigation of sex crimes. It is concluded that significant gaps persist in our knowledge of whether existing laws effectively reduce sexual offending or reoffending and that large-scale, well-designed studies of the impact of sex offender registration on rates of offending, the collateral consequences to offenders and their families, and the costs of such laws are needed.     

结果加重犯的构成结构新析

流行的以混合罪过为显著特征的结果加重犯的概念,以及现在的一些立法规定情况,并未真正辨明结果加重犯的构成特征,由此导致疑惑丛生,甚至产生了废止之论。但对结果加重犯构成结构的新析和实务考察表明,结果加重犯是反映客观存在、满足实践需要的一种适当的立法创制。因而问题的关键是要正确把握结果加重犯的结构。     

Gender ‘Hostility’, Rape,and the Hate Crime Paradigm

This article examines whether crimes motivated by, or which demonstrate, gender ‘hostility’ should be included within the current framework of hate crime legislation in England and Wales. The article uses the example of rape to explore the parallels (both conceptual and evidential) between gender‐motivated violence and other ‘archetypal’ forms of hate crime. It is asserted that where there is clear evidence of gender hostility during the commission of an offence, a defendant should be pursued in law additionally as a hate crime offender. In particular it is argued that by focusing on the hate‐motivation of many sexual violence offenders, the criminal justice system can begin to move away from its current focus on the ‘sexual’ motivations of offenders and begin to more effectively challenge the gendered prejudices that are frequently causal to such crimes.     

法律文化现代化条件下的土地立法问题

从土地法学的深层普遍现象——土地法律文化的角度研究土地立法的相关问题。在现代文明社会,土地立法的内容、价值选择及立法方法的转向是必然现象;土地立法应该致力于建立现代的土地法律体系和贯彻权利本位的立法精神;政府部门的权力要受到约束,人们的合法权利要得到充分保障;通过对土地立法进行一般性的法理分析,制定符合现代法律文化的土地法以促进解决我国面临的严峻土地问题。     

Labours in Vice or Virtue? Neo-liberalism, Sexual Commerce, and the Case of Indian Bar Dancing

Of late, the Indian state has adopted an abolitionist stance towards sex work and bar dancing. This article argues that although in the Indian state of Maharashtra, the judicial overturning of the ban against bar dancing has been celebrated by feminists as a triumph of women's right to livelihood over patriarchal demands of women's sexual morality, the judgment is predicated on a sharp distinction between morally 'good' and 'bad' female labour, namely, bar dancing and sex work. This is ironic given their striking sociological similarities and the stigmatization and levels of state abuse inflicted against both. The article considers the usefulness of the totalizing logic of neo-liberalism for explaining the increased judicial and feminist tolerance for bar dancing. The article argues that prospects for redistributive law reform for all sexual workers are dim unless the arbitrary legal distinctions drawn between markets in female sexual labour are overcome.     

公立高校与教师的法律关系——以特别权力关系为视角

特别权力关系是行政法的一个重要理论,对此我国理论界已有广泛、深入的研究,但公立高校与教师之间法律关系的性质如何确定在理论上还存在一定的分歧,有观点认为二者是民事合同关系。本文试图从特别权力关系的角度来审视我国公立高校与教师之间的法律关系。     

Assessing reconviction,reoffending and recidivism in a sample of UK sexual offenders

Purpose. The rate of sexual reconviction for sexual offenders is known to be low. Sexual reconviction, however, is currently the most commonly used outcome measure in sex offender treatment evaluation studies. It is expected that sex offender treatment programmes will reduce the likelihood of reconviction amongst participants. A low base rate of sexual reconviction means that any reduction in reconviction (which could be attributed to treatment) will be small and unlikely to be statistically significant. This study aimed to assess other offence‐related outcomes for sexual offenders, in addition to reconviction. Methods. The sample comprised 173 sexual offenders who had completed a community sex offender treatment programme. Follow‐up information was collected forthe sample from programme files containing multi‐agency information. Official reconviction rates were also calculated using both Home Office and police data. Results. Collecting evidence of any offence‐related sexual behaviour during this study multiplied the sample's sexual reconviction rate by a factor of 5.3. Conclusions. The results show that broadening the outcome measure under observation indicates a higher level of offence‐related sexual behaviour displayed by sexual offenders than reflected by reconviction data. These results have implications for the outcomes measured in treatment evaluation research for sexual offenders.     

Climate change and national laws across Commonwealth countries

This paper furthers the Commonwealth agenda on climate action by exploring the kinds of ‘practical and swift action’ that might be taken through national legal frameworks to implement the Paris Agreement. The paper reviews national laws of Commonwealth member countries as they currently apply to and intersect with climate change. The paper investigates legal measures that relate directly to implement climate change policy, including climate change legislation and regulatory instruments such as emissions trading schemes and energy efficiency measures. It also considers indirect legal measures that can provide ‘co-benefits’ in relation to climate change policy, such as waste legislation and air quality measures. The paper presents examples of these different kinds of climate intersections in different Commonwealth legal systems, highlighting examples of what has worked well and what has not worked well to date, within different legal, economic and political cultures, and in different geographies and climates.     

PROTECTION OF MALE SEXUAL RIGHTS IN THE CRIME OF RAPE

Crimes relevant to sexual offence in the current Criminal Law of the PRC, such as the crime of rape, the crime of forcible molestation and humiliation of women, the crime of indecency with a child, establish a relatively close net for protecting female sexual rights. However, the protection of male sexual rights is surprisingly neglected or disregarded. In current China, sexual offences against males （including sexual offence against a male by male and sexual offence against a male by female） are getting worse. Unfortunately, male victims of sexual offences cannot seek for legal remedy due to the lack of legal provisions. In theory, the Criminal Law needs to bring in the protection of male sexual rights. This thesis will focus on the issue relevant to sexual offences against males on the crime of rape. The authors will present increasing evidence of sexual offences against males and explore the reasons. We will analyze the necessity of amending the provisions of the crime of rape based on theoretical and practical research, and learn from the advantages of legislations of different times and places in China and other countries. We will conclude with suggestions for amending the current Criminal Law about the crime of rape in order to fill up the gap in legal protection of male sexual rights in China.     

Tilting at Windmills: the Defamation Act 2013

In April 2013, the Defamation Act was passed, the culmination of a four‐year political campaign. The legislation is intended to ameliorate the ‘chilling effect’ of libel law on scientists, online commentators, NGOs, and others. This paper considers the main changes wrought: reform of the main common law defences, changes relevant to scientific discourse and online speech, and revisions that will impact on process. It identifies areas where there will be problems of interpretation for courts, and suggests that the Act will fail to provide clarity for publishers keen to assess the legality of their actions. The paper also contends that more attention should have been paid to remedies (in particular, the desirability of discursive remedies such as the right of reply). The question is posed whether the Act addresses the core problem with libel law: the juridification and over‐complication of public sphere disputes, and the attendant cost of embroilment in legal proceedings.     

Sex in Context: Space,Place, and the Constitution of Images

This paper examines the changing context for sexual images and the spaces that give law meaning. The details are evident in Congressional efforts to regulate sex on the Internet and the Supreme Court’s response as well as changing contexts for encountering forbidden images from the old stag films and peep shows to the local public library and sex sites on the web. The paper is part of a larger project on seeing law and the idea that Lady Justice is blind.     

社会性别的法律建构及其批判

性别等级是在人类社会进化的过程中,主要由男权文化不断解释与不断塑造的结果,社会性别这一概念是探求这一原因最好的分析工具。原初社会"男耕女织"的性别分工成为家庭关系与公共关系的分野。在公共关系中,男人在自利心的驱使下渐生平等的要求,并在平等诉求下形成法律;而在家庭关系中因为亲情而使平等与公正成为多余。由于女性并未参与公共关系中的法律建设,致使性别平等既不能在公共领域中得以表达,也不能在家庭关系中得以体现。最终,法律认同了公共领域与私人领域的划分,并在这一基础上建构起了性别等级的社会模式。而代表男权文化的法律理论也极尽"科学"之能,不断地掩盖和强化性别社会化的实质,尤以社会契约论为最。社会契约论以法律为公民同意之结果而使法律披上了公正的面纱,却因为无视女性没有成为契约主体的事实而沦为掩盖社会性别的帮凶。即便是罗尔斯的"无知之幕"理论也因为无法排除性别的先天知晓而成为法律平等与公正的神话。虽然,实证主义法学与自然法学在许多理论问题上存在着针锋相对的观点,但在制造并掩盖社会性别上也成了同盟军。法律与法律理论的紧密联系与有机配合终于迫使社会性别及其等级模式在法律中立的旗帜下不断地得以演绎、建构和强化。     

惩治商业贿赂行为必须严厉打击行贿犯罪

行贿犯罪不仅是产生商业贿赂的重要根源,而且严重侵犯了国家工作人员职务行为的廉洁性,践踏了国家法治和社会正义.介绍了建国以来我国关于行贿犯罪立法的历史沿革,总结了我国查处行贿罪的现状及当前行贿犯罪的特点,重点解析了行贿犯罪在立法上的缺陷,从立法上提出了关于完善行贿罪立法的建议:一是严密法网;二是充分发挥刑罚的威慑功能;三是对行贿犯罪采取从宽处罚原则,实行轻刑化;四是建立行贿人"污点证人豁免制度".     

Defining, assigning and designing sex

This article challenges the distinction the law draws between male and female. It focuses on the legal and medical treatment of intersexual people. Analysing the nature and rate of intersexuality it argues that there is a significant number of people who cannot be described as either male or female and instead exhibit a range of sexual characteristics. Until recently the law and medicine have insisted that intersexual people should be categorized as either male or female. Surgery was performed to ensure that they had the appearance assumed to be the 'norm' for a man or woman and the law followed this medical assignment of sex. Over the last couple of years the established medical practice and the legal treatment have been challenged. This article discusses the nature of these challenges and argues that there is a strong case for rejecting the traditional legal and medical approach to intersexual people. Cosmetic surgery on intersexual babies should be delayed until the individual is old enough to be able to choose their own sexual identity, which may be neither male nor female. The insistence that every person must either be male or female is no longer supportable in medical or social terms and a much wider range of sexual identities must be recognized by the law.