Determinants of completing rape and assault

Is rape unique in terms of the factors which transform an attempt into a completion? Or is rape similar to other forms of assaultive violence? These questions are addressed here by employing the National Crime Survey to develop models of attempted versus completed rape, assault on females, and assault on males. Logistic equations predicting each type of victimization are estimated and compared. The analysis shows that rape victimization is unique. Additionally, the differences between attempted versus completed rape and assault cannot be accounted for by the sex of the victim or the sex of the assailant. The implications of these findings for theories of rape and assault are discussed. The policy implications of these findings are briefly considered.     

Police response to physical assault and stalking victimization: A comparison of influential factors

The current study uses the National Violence Against Women Survey to examine factors associated with criminal justice system involvement in incidents of male physical violence and stalking against women. While both stalking and physical domestic assault incidents are more likely to be reported to the police if the victim is female or if the offender has used threats, only physical domestic assaults are less likely to be reported to the police when the offender is familiar. Additionally, when considering formal police responses, there are very few similarities across the models for physical domestic assault and stalking. These findings show that physical domestic assault and stalking are two unique types of crimes and should be considered separately in any analysis of factors affecting legal decisions and responses to domestic violence.     

Understanding rape and sexual assault: 20 years of progress and future directions

During the past 20 years, researchers have documented the widespread problem of rape in American society. Approximately one in four women are raped in their adult lifetime, which causes severe psychological distress and long-term physical health problems. The impact of sexual assault extends far beyond rape survivors as their family, friends, and significant others are also negatively affected. Moreover, those who help rape victims, such as rape victim advocates, therapists, as well as sexual assault researchers, can experience vicarious trauma. Future research and advocacy should focus on improving the community response to rape and the prevention of sexual assault.     

A Culturally Informed Developmental Approach to Understanding Risk and Resiliency Among Native American Youth

Abstract

An increasing amount of resources is being allocated by governmental agencies to the study of offending and related social problems among Native Americans. While experienced scholars are well aware of the special challenges and unique opportunities of carrying out research with Native Americans, expanding resources will likely attract others with less experience in this area. This paper provides some suggestions for undertaking extensive research projects on risk and resiliency with Native Americans, including methodological issues and a call for a culturally informed developmental approach.     

Latent profiles among sexual assault survivors: understanding survivors and their assault experiences

Little guidance exists about how to tailor empowerment and resistance sexual assault programming to be responsive to varying groups of women. Using an investigation of 415 college women who completed a self-administered survey about a range of sexually aggressive experiences by a known male assailant, this investigation tested for distinct multivariate profiles of contextual factors among sexually assaulted women to discern how these factors may differentially combine to influence women's vulnerability to sexual assault. We applied latent profile analysis (LPA) to determine meaningful subgroups of women based on interrelationships among factors that contextualize women's vulnerability to sexual assault, including prior victimization, alcohol consumption, relationship expectancies of the assailant, and assertive precautionary habits. LPA established four significantly distinct multivariate profiles of substantively different groups of women. Group difference tests reinforced the findings and aided in group profile interpretations. Implications for the development of tailored resistance and empowerment programs are discussed.     

Risk factors for sexual victimization among male and female homeless and runaway youth

Risk factors associated with the likelihood of being sexually victimized by a stranger or friend/acquaintance since being on the street was examined among 372 homeless and runaway youth. Young people were interviewed on the streets and in shelters by outreach workers using a systematic sampling strategy. Youth who engaged in more high-risk behaviors were expected to be at greater risk for sexual victimization by both known and unknown assailants. Results indicated that for females, running from home for the first time at an earlier age was associated with sexual victimization by both a stranger and friend/acquaintance. However, engaging in deviant subsistence strategies, survival sex, and grooming predicted being sexually victimized by a friend/acquaintance. For males, survival sex and grooming predicted stranger sexual victimization, whereas sexual orientation was associated with sexual victimization by a friend/acquaintance. Overall, 35% of the sample had been sexually victimized.     

Counseling services for battered women: a comparison of outcomes for physical and sexual assault survivors

Approximately 15% of married or cohabiting women and as many as 60% of battered women are raped at least once by their partners. This study compared community-based counseling outcomes of battered women with outcomes of women who were both raped and battered by their partners. Over time, both groups improved in wellbeing and coping. Although those both battered and raped progressed more in counseling, they had lower scores before and after counseling compared to women who were battered only. Implications for research and intervention are discussed.     

本土法与外来法:美国的经验

美国法的历史经历了从无到有,从继受外来法到形成发展美国本土法 的漫长过程。这一过程是有机的、渐进的、不可任意割裂。１７世纪早期殖民地的法 制状况具有多元化与创新性相结合的特点。１８世纪殖民地大规模、全面系统地继受 英国法。独立战争至１９世纪中叶美国本土法形成。在移植外来法、形成本土法的过 程中,美国人重视法律本土资源,坚持可适用性原则。在法律移植过程中,最先被本 土化的是初级规划,次级规划则较晚被本土化。     

Latent profiles among sexual assault survivors: implications for defensive coping and resistance

Rape resistance trainings need to prepare women to recognize and resist sexual assault across a range of experiences and contexts. To help address this need, this research used an investigation of 415 college women who completed a survey about their situational responding to an experience of acquaintance sexual assault. A previously established person-centered analysis model of four distinct risk and protective factor profiles was used to investigate the variability in women's responding. The profiling factors included women's prior victimization, alcohol consumption, relationship expectancies of the assailant, and assertive precautionary habits. Multivariate ANOVA was used to test for differences among the four profile groups on their cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responding. Results showed that the profile groups significantly differed in their assault responses. The findings highlight the utility of holistic, multivariate analyses for understanding women's sexual assault responses and help inform tailored resistance and empowerment trainings.     

Circumstances surrounding male sexual assault and rape: findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey

Much work in the area of male sexual assault and rape relies on small clinical samples. From these samples, researchers reported that most male victims were physically injured during the attack and that penetration occurred. This work rests on a subsample of 219 men from the 1994-1996 Violence and Threats of Violence Against Women and Men in the United States Survey. Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey (NVAW) show that the vast majority of male sexual assault victims reported that they were not physically injured during the assault, that a weapon was not used, that there was no substance use at the time of the assault, and that penetration did not occur. Only 29% of male respondents in the NVAW sought medical or psychological help after the assault. Prior work may have overrepresented men who reported being physically injured and/or penetrated. An analysis is presented of how those who presented for help in the NVAW differ from the whole sample. Results show that men who presented for help were more likely to have reported being physically injured during the assault and that penetration occurred. Thus, findings from prior work make sense; however, they may not be representative of male assault victims as a whole.     

Long-term psychological distress associated with marital rape and aggravated assault: A comparison to other crime victims

This study compared four groups of women who reported being the victims of a single violent crime (total N = 47) and a group of non-victimized women (N = 96). Victims were divided into groups based on the type of assault (rape vs. aggravated assault) and the identity of their assailant (husband vs. stranger). The groups were compared on measures of psychological functioning and symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Crime victims reported higher levels of psychological distress than did the non-victimized women across a variety of symptom areas. There were no group differences among the four victim groups on any of the measures. Women assaulted by their husbands were more likely to report that the assault was one of a series of similar attacks. Victims of aggravated assault were more likely than rape victims to report that they feared for their lives during the assault. Results are discussed with respect to societal views on the comparative severity of marital and stranger assaults.     

Native American Identity and the Limits of Cultural Defence

This article concerns itself with the phenomenon of the cultural defence as it exhibits itself in the US juridical context. Recent socio-legal discussions about this phenomenon reveal three prevalent positions: the illegality of cultural defence on constitutional grounds, the necessity of cultural defence as a matter of discretionary justice, and the intermediary position of working cultural defence into a legal doctrine. By problematizing the operative concept of culture, the author suggests that the idea of cultural defence should be understood in terms of foreignness. This suggestion is supported on the basis of the phenomenological theory of the alien (xenology). In order to illustrate the juridical limits of the cultural defence I examine the history of constructing the Native American as a cultural legal subject. Hence the question that primes this examination: is there a possibility of the traditional cultural defence for the American Indians? After a provisional answer that there is no such possibility, I conclude with the discussion of hospitality as a way to an ethically necessary and legally acceptable idea of culture.     

Nobody trusts them! Under- and over-policing Native American Communities

Interviews with 278 Native Americans from seven states, and representing eight American Indian nations have revealed startling patterns of racial violence against this community. In part, this may be accounted for by the enabling climate created by law enforcement in these communities. Of particular concern in this paper are patterns of police activity, which simultaneously represent both the under-enforcement and over-enforcement of the law with respect to Native American communities. Participants have reported activities ranging from willful blindness toward Native American victimization at one extreme, to police brutality at the other.     

Sexual assault nurse examiners' perceptions of their relationship with doctors, rape victim advocates, police, and prosecutors

In response to the negative and inefficient treatment of rape victims by emergency room personnel, the first Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner (SANE) programs began in the late 1970s. While SANEs, doctors, rape victim advocates, police officers and prosecutors work together to ensure the most comprehensive and sensitive care of rape victims, they all have very different roles and objectives. This research explores SANEs' perceptions of their relationships with other professionals who treat or interact with rape victims. Data from interviews with 39 Sexual Assault Nurse Examiners from four East Coast states indicate positive relationships are marked by open communication, respect shown towards SANEs as well as rape victims, and a sense of appreciation among SANEs. On the contrary, negative relationships result when SANEs believe police treat victims poorly, when advocates overstep boundaries and question SANEs about evidence collection or the exam, and when prosecutors fail to properly prepare them to testify during a trial.     

Testing the relative importance of contemporaneous offenses: The impacts of fear of sexual assault versus fear of physical harm among men and women

Purpose

The current study tests the shadow of sexual assault hypothesis and extends recent research by examining whether the fear of physical harm or the fear of sexual assault has a greater impact on fear of other crimes.

Methods

To determine the unique interaction between gender and fear, we conduct separate analyses among men and women.

Results

While fear of physical harm and fear of sexual intrusion are both predictive of fear of home invasion, robbery, and murder, fear of physical harm has a significantly greater impact across all types of fear (e.g., home invasion, robbery, murder).

Conclusions

Despite previous empirical evidence that suggests fear operates differently among men and women, our findings suggest that fear of physical harm - rather than fear of sexual intrusion - is a more robust predictor of fear of crime among both men and women.     

Interpersonal Racial Discrimination,Ethnic-racial Socialization,and Offending: Risk and Resilience among African American Females

Evidence is accumulating that interpersonal racial discrimination is criminogenic and ethnic-racial socialization (ERS) practices provide resilience. This research, however, has largely focused on black males. We address this gap by exploring these risk and resilience processes among black females. Drawing on Simons and Burt’s social schematic theory and research on adaptive cultural practices in African American families, this study investigates how interpersonal racial discrimination increases the risks of crime among females and whether familial ERS provides resilience. After focusing on females, we also compare the findings among females to those for males to shed light on gender differences. We examine these questions using panel data from the Family and Community Health Study, a survey of black families first surveyed in 1999 and at roughly two-year intervals thereafter. Consistent with prior work, we find a strong effect of racial discrimination on an increase in crime, with the bulk of this effect being mediated by the criminogenic knowledge structure. Although one of the two forms of ERS examined—cultural socialization—did not reduce the criminogenic effects of racial discrimination, preparation for bias exerted a strong protective effect. Comparing the findings to that for males revealed that preparation for bias attenuated the criminogenic effects of racial discrimination for both males and females, but it did so in gendered ways. This study fills a gap in our understanding of the criminogenic effects of discrimination among black females, supporting a social schematic theory’s explanation of the effects of racial discrimination on crime. In addition, findings highlight protective cultural practices in African American families, especially preparation for bias.     

Characteristics of sexual assault and disclosure among women in substance abuse recovery homes

Research suggests that many women experience some form of sexual assault in their lifetime and that women who engage in substance abuse often have a higher incidence of past sexual assault than women in the general population. Given the documented rates of sexual assault among women in recovery from substance use, it is important to explore community interventions that promote positive recovery from substance use and sexual assault. One model that promotes successful substance use recovery is the Oxford House--a democratic, self-supported substance use recovery home. Research demonstrated that living in an Oxford House provides sober social support and that this increased social support may promote the use of positive coping strategies to strengthen recovery from substance use, however; the relationship between social support and sexual assault for women is unclear. Thus, the current study examines the Oxford House model for women in recovery from substance use who have experienced sexual assault. A cross-sectional sample of women living in Oxford Houses in the United States was obtained to examine the relationship among disclosure of sexual assault, social support, and self-esteem. Results suggested that many women used Oxford House as a setting in which to disclosure prior sexual assault. Results also indicated that women who disclosed their assault experience reported higher self-esteem and social support than women who had not disclosed. Possible implications include the value of substance abuse recovery homes as a safe, supportive environment for women to address issues related to sexual assault.