Discrepancy between Mother and Child Perceptions of Their Relationship: II. Consequences for Children Considered within the Context of Maternal Physical Illness

Discrepancies between parent and child perceptions of parenting have been well established. The current study addressed whether discrepancies in one dimension of parenting, the parent-child relationship, are associated with child adjustment difficulties concurrently and longitudinally. In particular, it was hypothesized that greater discrepancies in mother and child perceptions of parenting would be associated with child adjustment difficulties. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that families experiencing a stressor—in this case, maternal infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)—would experience larger discrepancies than families in which the mother is noninfected and that maternal HIV infection would moderate the association between discrepant views and child adjustment. Participants were 183 African-American women (61 HIV infected; 122 noninfected) and one of their noninfected children. All participants were from the inner-city area of New Orleans. Results indicated that discrepancies in mother and child perceptions of their relationship was associated with mother and child reports of externalizing behavior problems concurrently and longitudinally. In addition, discrepancies were significantly higher in families experiencing maternal HIV infection than in the noninfected group. However, with one exception, maternal HIV status failed to moderate the relationship between discrepancies in perception and child adjustment, indicating that discrepancies play a similar role in both types of families. Clinical implications of the present results are discussed.     

Coparent Support and Conflict in African American Single Mother-Headed Families: Associations With Maternal and Child Psychosocial Functioning

This longitudinal investigation examined main and interactive effects of coparent support and conflict on mother and child adjustment in 248 low-income, African American, single mother-headed families. The findings indicated that coparent conflict was a more robust predictor of mother and child maladjustment both cross-sectionally and longitudinally than was coparent support. Moreover, findings revealed that coparent conflict and support interacted to predict one parenting behavior, monitoring, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Coparent relationships characterized by high levels of support and low levels of conflict were associated with the highest levels of parental monitoring behavior, whereas coparent relationships characterized by low levels of support and high levels of conflict were associated with the lowest levels of monitoring. The findings highlight the importance of examining both positive and negative aspects of coparent relationships in this at-risk, but understudied, group.     

CURRENT RESEARCH ON CHILDREN'S POSTDIVORCE ADJUSTMENT

This article reviews the current research on the effects of marital conflict, parental adjustment, custody, and access on children following divorce. Evidence from research demonstrates that significantly more adjustment problems confront children, especially boys, of divorced parents compared to those in never-divorced families. However, when assessed in years following the divorce, these children are functioning in normal limits and do not appear "disturbed," although the media report the opposite. The article discusses an important British study finding that marital conflict and not the divorce affect children and that divorce may mitigate some of the more destructive effects. The analysis of research dealing with joint custody brings together both current and ongoing studies. A surprising finding in one study was that mothers who share custody are more satisfied than those having sole custody and whose children see their father periodically. However, both groups expressed more satisfaction with their residential arrangement than did sole-custody mothers whose children had no paternal contact. Court-ordered joint custody was less satisfactory than when the parents voluntarily agreed to that arrangement, and spouses reporting high levels of marital conflict tended to do less well in joint custody arrangements than did families with less conflict.     

Parent-adolescent conflict and stress as a parent: Are there differences between being a mother or a father?

Parent-adolescent conflict is viewed as a common dimension of the family during the teenage years. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether mothers and fathers of young adolescents differ in their report of conflict with their adolescent, level of stress, and parenting competence. Furthermore, the role of age and gender of the young adolescents was examined. One hundred and twenty-two adolescents and their parents participated in the study. All families were intact. The families were divided into groups according to the adolescent's age and gender. Analyses of variance with three factors (adolescent's age, adolescent's gender, mothers versus fathers) were performed. Mothers and fathers did not differ on personal (depression) or marital adjustment and on perceived parenting competency. In contrast, in terms of parent-adolescent conflict, mothers reported a less positive relationship, a greater number of conflicts, and more intense discussions of conflicts with their adolescents. Gender and age of the adolescent were not important contributors to the analyses. The results suggest that, in terms of the variables examined in this study, conflict in the parent-adolescent relationship is the primary difference between mothers and fathers.     

SPOUSAL CONSENSUS ON THE DIVORCE DECISION AND MEDIATION OUTCOME

This study examined the relationship between spousal consensus on the decision to divorce and mediation outcome. Based largely on clinical experience and deductive reasoning, the conceptual literature has held that low consensus is negatively related to success in divorce mediation. To empirically explore this relationship, 72 families beginning court-ordered divorce mediation were asked whether they agreed that divorce was the best way out of their problems. Statistical analysis of their responses as they related to the outcome of mediation did not support the conceptual literature. No significant relationship was found between spousal consensus on the divorce decision and mediation outcome, a finding which agrees with the limited empirical research. This indicated that mediation is more tolerant of spousal nonconsensus than had been assumed in the divorce mediation literature.     

Navigating adolescent depression and anxiety in the context of parenting plan evaluations

This article touches upon theories accounting for the rise in adolescent anxiety and depression and how the prevalence of adolescent anxiety and depression affects how we navigate parenting plan evaluations. This article also discusses the importance of screening youth for depressive and anxious symptoms and assessing family, parental, and youth risk and protective factors related to adolescent depression and anxiety. This article also highlights the importance of assessing for mediating factors that increase the risk of anxiety and depression in youth in the context of parental separation, such as interparental conflict, financial difficulties, and limited contact with one parent. This article also identifies various methods of assessing depression and anxiety, including the adolescent interview, observations during the interview, and self-report measures. Additionally, this article discusses potential interventions that address mediators of the impact of divorce, such as parenting problems, family conflict, or the parent–child relationship.     

Dimensions of interparental conflict and adolescent functioning

While research has repeatedly demonstrated that interparental conflict is related to poorer child/adolescent functioning in the areas of internalizing and externalizing problems, as well as prosocial and cognitive competence, the particular relevant dimensions of the conflict have yet to be studied. The present study examined the contributions of three different dimensions of conflict to these difficulties in adolescent functioning. Forty-eight mother-father-adolescent triads participated by completing questionnaires regarding the following dimensions of their interparental conflict: frequency, method of handling, and outcome. Assessment of adolescent functioning was obtained independently through teacher-completed measures of internalizing and externalizing problems and prosocial and cognitive functioning. The results of correlational analyses indicated that father-completed measures, particularly the use of verbal and physical aggression to handle conflict, were related to all four measures of adolescent functioning. In contrast, mother-completed measures were not related. Multiple regression analyses were also conducted. For all four measures, either father physical or father verbal aggression entered first and accounted for 17 to 48% of the variance across the four dependent measures. No other indices of conflict individually accounted for a significant portion of the variance beyond that accounted for by father's verbal or physical aggression. Possible explanations for the relationship between father's method of handling of conflict and adolescent functioning are discussed.     

Physical Discipline and Socioemotional Adjustment Among Jamaican Adolescents

The study examined the relationship between physical punishment and socioemotional well-being in a sample of Jamaican adolescents. The data indicated that the overwhelming majority of adolescent respondents experienced physical punishment within their families. Physical punishment was significantly associated with adverse psychological and behavioral consequences, in that adolescents reporting being victims of physical punishment also indicated a greater propensity to developmental adjustment problems than their non-victimized peers. However, unlike findings from research emanating from more industrialized cultures, sociodemographic factors were not associated with the incidence of physical punishment. Gender showed statistical significance on all socioemotional dimensions and with behavior problems but not with physical punishment. Implications for policy decisions to reduce children’s exposure to violence within that particular cultural context are discussed.     

MAKING IT WORK

With the prevalence of divorce in our country, there is a serious need of services for divorcing families to be readily available and offered in a manner to increase the use of the services. Early intervention with the divorcing family is critical to help alleviate levels of parental conflict and decrease potential litigation. This article is an evaluation of the first year of court-mandated parenting psychoeducational workshops. The results demonstrate the positive effects of the workshops for most divorcing parents in terms of levels of ongoing conflict between parents, children's adjustment as observed by the parents, parents' adjustment, and parents' ability to settle the legal issues of the divorce and keep the children out of the middle of the conflict.     

TAILORING THE INTERVENTION TO THE CHILD IN THE SEPARATING AND DIVORCED FAMILY

Longitudinal and national studies show that many children of divorce suffer grave emotional and educational difficulties. These difficulties, which are evident before, during, and long after divorce, have complex roots in skewed family relationships, such as troubled parent/child relationships, the psychiatric disturbance of one or both parents, and continuing parental conflict. Although it is abundantly clear that these families are in dire need of a wide range of sophisticated educational and clinical programs, both brief and extended, to address the different subgroups within this population, few such programs are available. Of particular concern are high-conflict families where the divorce may have triggered a thought disorder Family-centered and group programs that make use of recent research findings have been successful in addressing both parents and children within different target groups in the divorce population. Programs based on these successful demonstration projects should be made widely available through the courts and/or in the community.     

Conclusion: Mental health and legal responses to the adolescent mental health crisis: Raising the bar on best interests and promoting family connectedness in divorcing families

We are currently facing an unprecedented increase in adolescent mental health problems resulting in alarmingly high levels of depression, anxiety, and suicidality. Significant mental health problems among youth pose unique challenges to families in the process of separation and divorce, as well as to family law professionals across all disciplines. The current adolescent mental health crisis calls for new ways of approaching our work with high conflict families to promote family connectedness and shift away from adversarial approaches that may exacerbate conflict and further destabilize families. As a conclusion to the special issue on adolescent mental health needs, the authors make multidisciplinary best practices recommendations and advocate for systems level changes in recognition of the needs of youth in crisis at this pivotal developmental stage.     

Retrospective reports of family-of-origin divorce and abuse and college student's pre-parenthood cognitions

This study examined the relationship between pre-parenthood cognitions and family-of-origin divorce and aggression. College students from divorced (N=46) and intact (N=66) families were asked to report their positive and negative pre-parenthood beliefs. Young adults from divorced families were found to anticipate more concerns about parenthood than those from intact families. Second, consistent with hypothesis, number of parenting concers differed by reported level of physical victimization from father. Level of witnessing father-to-mother violence was also significantly associated with pre-parenthood concerns, as individuals who witnessed severe levels of father-to-mother violence reported more concerns about parenthood than did those witnessing mild violence, emotional abuse, or no physical or emotional abuse. Victimization from mother and witnessing mother-to-father violence were unrelated to pre-parenthood concerns. None of the family-of-origin experiences was found to relate to positive reasons for children. These findings suggest that divorce and physical abuse by father in the family-of-origin may result in altered negative pre-parenthood cognitions. The findings were discussed in relation to theories about the intergenerational transmission of negative family events, as well in relation to gender sensitive models of family violence.     

SEPARATION ANXIETY AND DE FACTO DENIAL OF VISITATION

The dynamics of separation anxiety and its potential impact upon restriction of legal visitation in preschool age children is discussed. The interplay between adult personality characteristics and the child's developmental level is inextricably intertwined to generate separation fears. This interplay is presented within a theoretical framework of interaction. Unfortunately, the child's reactions to separation are frequently misinterpreted by the parents as indications of some mistreatment by the former spouse. Although adjustment difficulties in preschool age children coping with divorce are likely, the pattern of disturbance associated with separation anxiety is predictable and occurs almost exclusively with temporary removal from the primary parent. Behavioral health and legal professionals are cautioned against allowing such behavioral disturbance to be utilized by combative parents to deny, restrict or abridge scheduled visitations with the nonresidential parent. Requests for private custody evaluations have increased dramatically in the past decade. Behavioral health professionals often find themselves being jointly stipulated to by disagreeing parties, or directly appointed by the court, to help formulate a residential plan to meet “the best interests of the children” affected. When assessing divorcing families with young children, varied adjustment patterns are observed. However, as Wallerstein and Kelly (1980) discovered, almost all children are adversely affected by the family rupture, at least on a short-term basis. Surprisingly less than 10 percent of the children experienced relief following the parental decision to divorce, despite the degree of explosiveness which may have characterized the dysfunctional marital relationship. Further, the particular response style exhibited by the children was primarily dependent upon the developmental and emotional level the child attained prior to the time of divorce. While positive adjustment has been correlated with an absence of feuding or animosity between the divorcing parents (McKinnon & Wallerstein, 1986), preschool children seem quite vulnerable to adjustment difficulties. Evidence has also begun to accumulate to suggest that divorce has a more serious impact upon boys than girls (Hetherington, 1979). Problems frequently surface during times of exchange, particularly when parents are actively engaged in battle. At its worst, these extreme maladjustments may resemble what appears to be a separation anxiety. Again, the Wallerstein and Kelly (1980) studies reported that preschool age youngsters displayed fright, exhibited regressions, confusion, increased aggression, maintained disruptive fantasies, and experienced guilt. While most of these symptoms remit within a year to a year and a half following divorce, continued bickering and conflict between the parents either prevents resolution, or may even exacerbate, these symptoms later. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the phenomenon of separation anxiety in greater detail, and to provide professionals aiding divorcing families with preschool age children sufficient information to recognize and understand these problems. Hopefully, this knowledge will facilitate those entrusted with making custodial-visitation recommendations, the confidence to follow through with agreed visitation plans despite what at first may appear to be discomfort to the child.     

Interparental Aggression and Adolescent Adjustment: The Role of Emotional Insecurity and Adrenocortical Activity

Adolescents exposed to interparental aggression are at increased risk for developing adjustment problems. The present study explored intervening variables in these pathways in a community sample that included 266 adolescents between 12- and 16-years-old (M?=?13.82; 52.5 % boys, 47.5 % girls). A moderated mediation model examined the moderating role of adrenocortical reactivity on the meditational capacity of their emotional insecurity in this context. Information from multiple reporters and adolescents’ adrenocortical response to conflict were obtained during laboratory sessions attended by mothers, fathers and their adolescent child. A direct relationship was found between marital aggression and adolescents’ internalizing behavior problems. Adolescents’ emotional insecurity mediated the relationship between marital aggression and adolescents’ depression and anxiety. Adrenocortical reactivity moderated the pathway between emotional insecurity and adolescent adjustment. The implications for further understanding the psychological and physiological effects of adolescents’ exposure to interparental aggression and violence are discussed.     

Intimate Partner Violence in Cohabiting Families: Reports by Multiple Informants and Associations with Adolescent Outcomes

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is common, particularly in families with children. Observing such verbal and physical aggression has consistently been linked to unfavorable outcomes for affected children. Although cohabiting families are becoming increasingly prevalent and preliminary data suggest that rates of IPV may be high in these families, little is currently known about IPV and its impact as experienced by adolescents living in cohabiting families. This study used data from low-income urban Black cohabiting families (N = 92) to (1) examine agreement of reports of verbal and physical IPV between the adolescent and the mother and between the adolescent and the male cohabiting partner (MCP) and (2) test associations between IPV and youth mental health. A higher percentage of adolescents reported the occurrence of IPV, particularly physical violence, than did mothers and MCPs. Relative to those living in minimally violent or verbally violent homes, adolescents living in verbally and physically violent homes reported higher rates of internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors. These youth also reported higher levels of self-blame for the conflict and a worse relationship with the MCP but not the mother.     

CRITICAL ASPECTS OF PARENTING PLANS FOR YOUNG CHILDREN

The debate about the benefits and drawbacks of overnight schedules for young children is hotly contested in family law. This study investigated connections between occurrence of overnights, schedule consistency, number of caregivers, and young children's adjustment to parental separation and divorce. Families ( N = 161) with children aged 6 years or younger were recruited at the time of filing for divorce or child custody (if unmarried); follow-up data were obtained from 132 families 15 to 18 months later. Results indicated that parenting plan variables are related to children's social, cognitive, and emotional behavior, with caregivers and schedule consistency more salient than overnights. Girls benefited from overnights and more caregivers, whereas boys did not. Overnighting children aged 4 to 6 years when their parents filed manifested fewer problems 1.5 years later than did younger children. Even when controlling for parental conflict and parent-child relationship variable, the constellation of parenting plan variables contributed to young children's adaptation.     

EFFECTS OF FATHER AND MOTHER PARENTING ON CHILDREN'S MENTAL HEALTH IN HIGH‐ AND LOW‐CONFLICT DIVORCES

This article studied the relations of children's mental health problems to the warmth of their relationship with their noncustodial father and custodial mother and the level of conflict between the parents. Using a sample of 182 divorcing families, multiple regression was used to test the independent effect of father warmth, mother warmth, and interparental conflict. Results indicated that father warmth and mother warmth were both independently related to lower child‐externalizing problems. However, the relations between mother and child warmth and child‐internalizing problems were different as a function of interparental conflict and level of warmth with the other parent. Implications for court practices and policies are discussed.     

Designing Heart‐Based Systems to Encourage Forgiveness and Reconciliation in Divorcing Families

Conflicts in intimate relationships are often accidental, occasional, and unique; yet they are also systemic, repetitive, and alike. For this reason, they are amenable to systemic analysis and resolution by altering them at their chronic sources and applying the preventative methodology of conflict resolution systems design. The central difficulties with using traditional forms of conflict resolution systems design in marriages, couples, and families are that they do not effectively address the emotional meaning or significance of the conflict within the relationship; are not grounded in the heart; and do not address the intimate, relational aspects of intimate, affective conflicts. Marriages and families are deeply sensitive, highly complex emotional relationships that require systems design methodologies that are profoundly informed by the heart. This article proposes a heart‐based systems design approach that includes forgiveness and reconciliation for use in marriages and families, including those that end in divorce.

Key Points for the Family Court Community:
• Conflicts in intimate relationships are accidental, occasional, and unique; yet they are also systemic, repetitive, and alike.
• Marriages and families are deeply sensitive, highly complex emotional relationships that require systems design methodologies that are profoundly informed by the heart.
• It is possible to create a heart-based systems design approach to marital, family and divorce conflicts that includes forgiveness and reconciliation.

     

THE IMPACTC OF DIVORCE ON FAMILIES

Australian research on the impact of separation and divorce on children and their families has consistently shown that although separation is a stressful event in the lives of families, the long-term prospects for these families is encouraging. A number of issues arising from the research presented in this article warrant closer consideration by decision makers, court administrators, and professionals dealing with disputing families. First, programs aimed at reducing conflict and assisting families to deal with the emotional impact of separation need to be given priority. Second, there is sufficient indication to suggest that poverty as a result of separation and divorce has a debilitating effect on women and children. Third, in dealing with disputes over custody and access, care needs to be taken to respect the needs of individual children. Finally, high conflict in a family postseparation should be a warning to pay particular attention to the potential harm of applying joint custody and frequent access presumptions.     

PARENTS BEYOND CONFLICT

This article describes a parent education program for high-conflict families in the Multnomah Country Circuit Court, Portland, Oregon. The method emphasized an educational approach teaching conflict resolution skills. This course was rooted in the tenets of cognitive restructuring: if parents think differently about the other parent and their shared task of raising their children, they will feel differently, and they will act differently. The authors beleived many of the difficulties between parents were caused by the negative perception of the other parent created during the spousal relationship. They also believed the key to successful co-parenting is to reframe these perceptions emphasizing cooperation and joint problem-solving. Furthermore, they believed as the cooperation and joint problem-solving improvement would have a positive, reinforcing effect. Finally, the authors believed parents must learn to separate conflict in the spousal role from conflict in the parenting role.