The average age for execution for the 42 reporting nations was 18. The United States of America was the only nation reporting for less than 16 years old. The following “methods of execution” were reported:
1.Hanging (N = 26, 57%)
2.Shooting (N = 11, 24%)
3.Beheading (N = 7, 15%)
Nations also excluded from the death penalty for the following reasons:
1.Mental Illness
2.Juveniles
3.Pregnant Woman
Only 7 nations reported “open” or “public” executions. 相似文献
Direct access by clients to barristers is one such response in a differentiated market for legal services. This has had a mixed reaction among barristers and barristers' clerks. Some see it as the route to a modern diverse profession while others see it as potentially harming these traditional relationships between barrister and solicitor that have been built up over many years. Among solicitors this has been met by their own moves to become advocates in the higher courts.
These changes are examined in the light of further changes anticipated by the Legal Services Act 2007 with the introduction of alternative business structures. These have the potential to affect traditional modes of practice with a consequent loss to barristers’ autonomy. 相似文献
The militia (police), created in 1917, has been mandated to prevent crime through intelligence activities, direct intervention, and citizen education. In 1966, it was given the responsibility for the supervision of offenders newly released from correctional institutions. Peoples Volunteer Brigades and the DRUZHINNIKS aid the militia in crime prevention.
The courts also make use of non-professionals in the persons of lay assessors to insure that the accused is judged by his “peers.” The court system itself is inquisitorial in nature as opposed to the American accusational model. As the accused person moves through pre-trial and trial procedures, one can see how his “rights” may be legally abridged at every step.
Russian courts have a variety of sentences from which to choose, ranging in harshness from public censure to death by shooting. Deprivation of liberty may be applied by degree from “education” to compulsory labor to strict incarceration. The Soviets are attempting an organized plan of diversionary sentencing, in order to reduce prison populations to all but the most dangerous offenders.
Correctional facilities depend on inmate commissions to keep order and motivate good behavior through group influence and peer pressure. Inmates as well as civilians have “a national duty to mind other people's business.”
In the United States, justice is fragmented into a variety of jurisdictions: municipal, county, state, and federal, each with its own law enforcement agencies, courts, and correctional agencies. Further, there is only limited coordination among the various segments of the system. There is little argument to the proposition that the American “system” of criminal justice is inefficient.
Unlike America's disjointed system, the Russian Criminal justice system is unified; militia (police), procurators (prosecutors), courts, and correctional facilities operate under a centralized coordinating body. This body is characterized by a unity of purpose and a high degree of systemic integration (Juviler, 1979, p. 1). 相似文献
The Law of Electronic Commerce: EDI, Fax and E‐Mail Technology, Proof and Liability Benjamin Wright Little, Brown and Company 1991. ISBN Q 316 95632 5 $95
Crime and the Computer Martin Wasik Oxford University Press 1991. ISBN 0 19 825621 3 £35
Broadcasting: the New Law Nicholas Reville Butterworths ISBN 0 406 001375 £16
Regulating the Media Thomas Gibbons Sweet and Maxwell ISBN 0 421 37450 0 £27.50
Legal Protection of Computer Software Ranald Robertson Longman 1991. ISBN 0 851 21684 6 £35
The Computerised Lawyer: a Guide to the Use of Computers in the Legal Profession Philip Leith Springer‐Verlag 1991.
Winning with Computers: Trial Practice in the 21st Century John C Tredennick Jr, Editor ABA Section on Law Practice Management 1991. ISBN 0 89707 658 3 $90
The Age of Information Stephen Saxby Macmillan 1990. ISBN 0 333 54832 9 £25
Computer Security: Hackers Penetrate DOD Computer Systems: Testimony before the Subcommittee on Government Information and Regulation, Committee on Governmental Affairs, United States Senate (A General Accounting Office Report) James Brock, Jr 1991. GAO/T‐IMTEC‐92–5
Computer Contracts Morgan and Stedman (4th Edition) Longman Commercial Series 1991. ISBN 0–85121–6854 £60 相似文献
Information Technology: The Challenge to Copyright. James Lahore, Gerald Dworkin and Yvonne Smyth Sweet & Maxwell and The Centre for Commercial Law Studies 1984, £12.00
Data Processing and the Law Edited by Colin Campbell Sweet and Maxwell 1984, £20.00
Le droit des Contrats Informatiques — Principes — Applications Centre de Recherches informatique et droit des Facultes Universitaires de Namur Maison Ferdinand Larder (Brussels), 1983, 45 FB
Computer Insecurity Adrian R.D. Norman Chapman and Hall 1983, £14.95
The Data Protection Act Richard Sizer and Philip Newman Gower Publishing, 1984, £16.95
The Data Protection Act 1984 Professor Bryan Niblett Oyez Longman Publishing, 1984, £18.00
The Data Protection Act 1984 — A Guide to the New Legislation J. A. L. Sterling CCH Editions, 1984, £15.00
Privacy and Data Protection — An International Bibliography Professor David H. Flaherty Mansell Publishing, 1984, £23.50
Computer Contracts R Morgan & G Stedman Oyez Longman Publishing 1984, 2nd Edition, £27.50
Computer Contracts Handbook Michele Rennie Sweet & Maxwell 1984, £15.00
Computer Contracts — An International Guide to Agreements and Software Protection Hilary Pearson Financial training 1984, £14.95 相似文献
Design—The Modern Law and Practice Ian Morris and Barry Quest Butterworths. 1987. £45
Computers and the Law Richard Mawry and Keith Salmon BSP Professional Books,(Oxford, London, Edinburgh) 1988, £19.95
Television by Satellite—Legal Aspects Stephen de B. Bate (ed.) ESC Publishing Limited. 1987. £32.75.
Computer Software: Legal Protection in the United Kingdom Henry Carr E.S.C. Publishing Ltd 1987, £32.50.
Patents in Chemistry and Biotechnology Philip W Grubb Clarendon Press 1987. £12.50.
The International Handbook on Computer Crime Computer‐related Economic Crime and the Infringements of Privacy Ulrich Sieber John Wiley & Sons 1987. £24.95.
Computer Law: Theory and Practice Naomi Assia Advocate 相似文献
Further Computer Contracts M‐T Michèle Rennie Sweet and Maxwell 1989. ISBN 0 421 40330 6
Formalism in AI and Computer Science Philip Leith Ellis Horwood 1990. ISBN 1 3325549 2
Electronically Recorded Evidence ‐ A Guide to the Use of Tape and Video Recordings in Criminal and Civil Proceedings Sybil Sharpe Fourmat Publishing 1989. ISBN 1 85190 071 3
Computer Law Chris Reed(ed) Blackstone Press Limited 1990. ISBN 1 85 431037 2
EDI and American Law: A Practical Guide Benjamin Wright Electronic Data Interchange Association 1989. ISBN 0 96 238750 9
Computer Software Protection and Semiconductor Chips Dr Dirk Schroeder (Butterworth's Current EC Legal Developments Series) 1990. ISBN 0 406 04021 4
Computers and the Law David I Bainbridge (Pitman) 1990. ISBN 0 273 03170 8 相似文献
Computer Law, Colin Tapper, Longman, London and New York, 1983 Third Edition, £9.50
Understanding Computer Contracts, Martin Edwards, Waterlow Publishers, 1983 £6.50
Data Protection: Perspectives on Information Privacy, Edited by Colin Bourn & John Benyon, Department of Adult Education, University of Leicester, 1983 £5
The Computer in Court, Alistair Kelman and Richard Sizer, Gower Publishing Company, 1982 £15.50
Principles of Database Systems, Jeffrey D Ullman, Pitman Publishing Ltd, 1982 Second Edition £13.95
Computers and the Law Teacher, A report of the proceedings of a conference held at North Staffordshire Polytechnic, Edited by David V Marshall, North Staffordshire Polytechnic, 1983 £3 相似文献
Complex litigation is an area of legal practice particularly apt to benefit from the use of modern information technology both before trial and during the trial. Complex litigation involves such a diversity of issues, allegations of fact, and divergent opinions as to be difficult to retain within the short term memory of one human brain for the length of time taken by the exposition of the evidence and argument followed by judicial analysis and expression of the judgment.
This type of litigation also benefits from intervention by the Court in the preparations for trial, and in that endeavour information technology would also be most helpful.
In this article I shall try to review in very general terms what is done and what could be attempted. I shall generally concentrate on civil rather than criminal litigation.
The views expressed are my views alone. 相似文献
Plastic and Electronic Money: New Payment Systems and Their Implications Patrick Frazer Woodhead Faulkner Limited 1985 £35
A User's Guide To Computer Contracting: Forms, Techniques and Strategies Davis, Allen, Bowman and Armstrong Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1985, $75
Legal Protection of Computer Programs and Data C. Millard Sweet & Maxwell/Stevens 1985, £24
Piracy of Phonograms Gillian Davies ESC Publishing Ltd. 1986. 2nd edition. £17.95.
Biotechnology and Patent Protection—An International Review F. K. Beier, R. S. Crespi and J. Straus O.E.C.D. 1985, £5
Protecting Privacy in Two‐Way Electronic Services David H. Flaherty Mansell Publishing Company 1985, £23.50
High‐Tech Espionage Jay Tuck Sidgwick and Jackson Ltd 1980, £10.95 相似文献
Legal Protection of Computer Programs in Europe — a Guide to the EC Directive Bridget Czarnota and Robert J Hart Butterworths 1991. ISBN 0 406 00542 7
Intellectual Property Rights in Sound Recordings, Film and Video J A L Sterling Sweet and Maxwell 1992. ISBN 0 421 4570 9
The European Market Place James Hogan Macmillan 1991. ISBN 0 333 51858 6
Intellectual Property D Bainbridge Pitman 1992. ISBN 0 273 034265 X 相似文献
The findings of this study show that male lawyers are rewarded better than female lawyers for the number of hours worked per week as well as for their married status. We also found that female lawyers who expected more regarding economic reward earn less, while no relationship was found for male lawyers. Furthermore, the likelihood to attain partnership is much lower for female than for male lawyers after controlling for all relevant variables. The results indicate existence of discrimination. 相似文献
Research on indigence, health, recreation, housing and other welfare areas of the elderly is common in Korea, but research on elderly criminals is rare. Projecting that their crime rates will rise, this preliminary research was conducted in order to understand their crime status and to establish proper counter‐policies.
This research focuses on the analysis of the present elderly population and changes of their status, in addition to criminal theories and criminal trends. Analysis on criminal statistics is done through classifying criminal offenses and special offenses according to the present governmental criminal classification methods of Korea. Criminal offenses are further separated into serious and estate‐related offenses.
The result of analysis on elderly criminals in Korea indicates that the most common crimes are assaults and related offenses, including battery and bodily injuries. Most assaults or related charges were, however, not decidedly serious. Among estate‐related offenses, misappropriation and property‐damage were the most common. Among special offenses, constructional violations have the highest rate. The majority of estate related offenses were less serious and produced less than W‐ 1,000,000 (approximately $1150 US dollars) in damages.
Destruction of traditional society is the major source of criminal activities. While younger generations demand less authoritarian and more interdependent relationships, the elderly insist upon adhering to their traditional ways of thinking. The elderly commit crimes out of the animosity and exasperation created from a perceived incompatibility with modern society. Their diminishing social and family hierarchies, along with carelessness and lack of recreation, lead the elderly into feeble or fatuous life styles, eventually leading to various offenses.
There is no simple solution to prevent the elderly from committing crimes since complex social and/or personality problems cause these deviant behaviors. The government needs to understand the overall problems and establish necessary counter‐policies with regard to the elderly. Even if their present crime rates seem insignificant now, the numbers are growing rapidly.
Conclusively, the first counter‐policy is to eliminate the source of the problems. Some specific policies that can be adopted to eliminate these sources include the expansion of employment and related educational opportunities to improve their economic conditions; realignment of medical benefit systems; broader access to effective recreational activities through volunteer and other civic programs; and social adjustment programs that can guide the elderly to better adjust to the evolving social changes. 相似文献
This paper reevaluates the relationship between prison overcrowding and inmate violence using official data reported for fifty-one (N = 51) Departments of Corrections reported in the Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics.
Results of the analysis indicate that although overcrowding relates to the number of suicides and homicides in expected directions, these connections reverse themselves as indicators of inmate violence are translated into percentages of respective inmate populations.
The number of suicides reported explains a significant (R2 = .27) portion of the variance in the number of homicides and clearly suggests that both forms of violence tend to occur together in state reporting areas. 相似文献
Beginning in the second half of the nineteenth century, courts principally in Ireland, England, and India began to act against payment to bail sureties on the concept that any indemnification of them—even partial—undermined their reliability. Irish courts took the approach that indemnified potential sureties were unreliable and should be rejected by courts. Where all potential sureties were indemnified, bail should be denied. In England courts declared agreements to indemnify sureties illegal contracts contrary to public policy, which would not be enforced by courts. While India took up the refinement of this position, England went on to declare agreements to pay bail sureties to be criminal conspiracies.
Meanwhile in the United States a circumscribed version of the position that indemnification contracts were against public policy—and therefore illegal and unenforcible—actually gained acceptance between 1870 and 1912. In 1912, however, Justice Holmes in Leary v. U.S. renounced the common law concept of bail sureties in favor of an “impersonal and wholly pecuniary” view. This terminated the anti-indemnification movement. Courts soon noted the detrimental effects of commercialism on bail. 相似文献
Method: Drawing on existing evidence, the group was developed and piloted on a sample of 12 male Young Offenders (mean age 19.85 years) in custody with a history of SI. Participants were measured on observable SI behaviour, SI thoughts and urges and psychological distress. A within subject design was utilised with measures at baseline, 6 months and 1 year.
Results: At 12 months follow-up, a significant reduction in SI acts, time spent on SI monitoring, severity of urges and difficulty resisting SI. Psychological distress was also reduced.
Conclusions: SIGPI could be a potentially promising intervention and further investigation into its efficacy is warranted. 相似文献
In several countries, including Portugal, public prosecutors are unusual within the legal profession given that they have equal status in both social and criminal areas of law. In certain systems, public prosecutors may act as a party, defending the rights of powerless citizens and leading them through the judicial process. Such powers offer great potential for fairness and justice but at the same time can lead to dangerous professional controversies. Through an analysis of the Portuguese model, one of the more advanced of its kind (in terms of intervention), some of the main features will be described and identified.
Public prosecutors in Portugal have, for many years, been in charge of a set of very varied responsibilities within the context of the Family and Juvenile and Labour Courts which far exceed what is publicly acknowledged, particularly in criminal matters. However, their functions are not limited to those of the ‘public prosecutor’ or ‘coordinator of the investigation’ typically associated with responsibilities in criminal matters.
Within the context of these two major and socially sensitive areas, public prosecutors act as intermediaries between the different parties and entities involved in litigation, a fact which, in professional terms, endows them with features which are atypical of magistrates and places them in close contact with citizens. Thus, taking a case study based on the Coimbra Family and Juvenile and Labour Courts as its starting point, this paper aims to map out these formal and informal functions, which create a level of importance that is probably much higher than would have been expected, particularly given the lack of truly credible and effective alternatives that enable citizens to access law and justice. 相似文献