A market study of green spray paints by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy.

A market study of 40 different green spray paints was carried out using infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy. The infrared technique distinguished between the 12 main groups based on their binder and extender composition. After visual comparison of the spectra 22 subgroups were observed. Raman spectroscopy was also carried out on the 40 reference paints in order to determine the pigment content. Analyses were undertaken using two different excitation sources: Argon ion (514.5 nm) and Helium-Neon (632.8 nm). The first generated strong fluorescence for most of the samples and created eight groups. Using the red laser, 15 classes were observed. Finally, using an analytical sequence starting with infrared spectroscopy followed by Raman Helium-Neon and then by Raman Argon laser, most of the paints were differentiated. In this study infrared and Raman spectroscopy complemented each other. FTIR supplied information about the binder and some extenders, and Raman provided information on the main organic pigments present.     

Comparison of feature selection and data fusion of Fourier transform infrared and Raman spectroscopy for identifying watercolor ink

The identification of different kinds of watercolor inks is an important work in the field of forensic science. Four different kinds of watercolor ink Spectroscopy data fusion strategies (Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy) combined with a non-linear classification model (Extreme Learning Machine) were used to identify the brand of watercolor inks. The study chose Competitive Adaptive Reweighted Sampling (CARS), Random Frog (RF), Variable Combination Population Analysis-Genetic Algorithm (VCPA-GA), and Variable Combination Population Analysis-Iteratively Retains Informative Variables (VCPA-IRIV) to extract characteristic variables for mid-level data fusion. The Cuckoo Search (CS) algorithm is used to optimize the extreme learning machine classification model. The results showed that the classification capacity of the mid-level fusion spectra model was more satisfactory than that of single Infrared spectroscopy or Raman spectroscopy. The CS-ELM models based on infrared spectroscopy used to recognize the watercolor ink according to brands (ZHENCAI, DELI, CHENGUANG, and STAEDTLER) obtained an accuracy of 66.67% in the test set using all spectral datasets. The accuracy of CS-ELM models based on Raman spectroscopy was 67.39%. The characteristic wavelength selection algorithms effectively improved the accuracy of the CS-ELM models. The classification accuracy of the mid-level spectroscopy fusion model combined with the VCPA-IRIV algorithm was 100%. The data fusion method increased effectively spectral information. The method could satisfactorily identify different brands of watercolor inks and support the preservation of artifacts, paintings, and forensic document examination.     

Fourier transform infrared analyses of some particulate drug mixtures using a diamond anvil cell with a beam condenser and an infrared microscope.

Although the diamond anvil cell (DAC) has been used in many forensic science laboratories for the analysis of trace evidence, few applications of this technique for the analysis of controlled substances have been reported. This may be due to both an unfamiliarity on the part of forensic drug chemists with this accessory and the nature and quality of spectra that result from use of a DAC on a dispersive instrument. Along with low energy throughput, which results in relatively high noise levels, strong broad diamond absorptions occur. With the use of a Fourier transform infrared instrument, these do not present a problem and nanogram quantities of materials can be analyzed when the DAC is used with an infrared microscope. Since single crystals can be sampled with the DAC, simple physical separations (involving particle-picking) can be used in certain cases to isolate drugs from particulate mixtures for infrared analysis. This method is especially useful for some "difficult" mixtures and residues, and several examples of such analyses involving samples of forensic science interest are presented.     

Fourier transform infrared reflectance spectra of latent fingerprints: a biometric gauge for the age of an individual

To determine if changes in fingerprint infrared spectra linear with age can be found, partial least squares (PLS1) regression of 155 fingerprint infrared spectra against the person's age was constructed. The regression produced a linear model of age as a function of spectrum with a root mean square error of calibration of less than 4 years, showing an inflection at about 25 years of age. The spectral ranges emphasized by the regression do not correspond to the highest concentration constituents of the fingerprints. Separate linear regression models for old and young people can be constructed with even more statistical rigor. The success of the regression demonstrates that a combination of constituents can be found that changes linearly with age, with a significant shift around puberty.     

The discrimination potential of ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry, thin layer chromatography, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for the forensic analysis of black and blue ballpoint inks

The knowledge of the discriminating power of analytical techniques used for the differentiation of writing inks can be useful when interpreting results. Ultraviolet-visible (UV-VIS) spectrophotometry, thin layer chromatography (TLC), and diffuse reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) were used to examine a population of 21 black and 12 blue ballpoint writing inks. Based on corroborative results of these methods, the discrimination power for UV-VIS, TLC, and FT-IR was determined to be 100% and 98% for the black and blue inks, respectively. Generally, TLC and UV-VIS can be used to differentiate the colorant components (i.e., dyes and some pigments) found in inks. As FT-IR can be utilized to identify some of the noncolorant components, it was determined to be an excellent complementary technique that can be implemented into an analytical scheme for ink analysis.     

Determination of the sequence of intersecting lines from laser toner and seal ink by Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy and scanning electron microscope / energy dispersive X-ray mapping

The aim of this study was to verify that the combination of Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy and scanning electron microscope / energy dispersive X-ray mapping could be applied to line intersection problems. The spectral data of red seal ink, laser toner and their intersections, such as peak location and peak intensity, were described. Relative peak height ratios of different chemical components in intersecting lines were used to distinguish the sequences. Energy dispersive X-ray mapping characteristics of intersecting areas were also detailed. The results show that both the laser toner and the seal ink appear on the surface of intersections, regardless of the sequence. The distribution of the two inks on the surface is influenced not only by the sequence of heterogeneous lines but also by diffusion. Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy and scanning electron microscope/energy dispersive X-ray mapping are able to explore the chemical components and the corresponding elemental distribution in the intersections. The combination of these two techniques has provided a reliable method for sequencing intersecting lines of red seal ink and laser toner, and more importantly, this method may be a basis for sequencing superimposed lines from other writing instruments.     

Variation of the amide I and amide II peak absorbance ratio in human hair as measured by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

Human scalp hair samples were examined by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and the ratio of the amide I to amide II band absorbances was determined. The effects of hair oxidation, color, age of sample, and sex of source were examined. Scalp hair from 98 individuals was also analyzed. While there were differences in the amide absorption band ratios, these were difficult to relate to the individualization of the hair samples and did not appear to have a sufficient discriminatory value for routine forensic use.     

Schedules of controlled substances; placement of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-(n)-propylthiophenethylamine and N-benzylpiperazine into Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act. Final rule

This final rulemaking is issued by the Acting Deputy Administrator of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) to place 2,5-dimethoxy-4-(n)-propylthiophenethylamine (2C-T-7) and N-benzylpiperazine (BZP) into Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act (CSA). This action by the DEA Acting Deputy Administrator is based on a scheduling recommendation by the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and a DEA review indicating that 2C-T-7 and BZP meet the criteria for placement in Schedule I of the CSA. This final rule will continue to impose the regulatory controls and criminal sanctions of Schedule I substances on the manufacture, distribution, and possession of 2C-T-7 and BZP.     

Classification of black powder toners on the basis of integrated analytical information provided by Fourier transform infrared spectrometry and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry

Differentiating between black powder toners used in laser printers and copiers can be challenging for forensic examiners. One hundred and sixty-two samples from 82 different types of cartridges produced by 21 manufacturers that are currently available on the Polish market were studied using Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR) and energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF). The spectra obtained by these two methods were classified into 14 groups and 28 groups using FT-IR and XRF, respectively. These classifications served as a basis for the development of an analytical scheme for differentiating black powder toners. This scheme can be used with any two methods that supply different information about an examined sample. The research will show that if two samples are similar in polymer composition (e.g., FT-IR spectra), additional quantitative elemental composition from XRF analyses may provide more discrimination. It was possible to differentiate 82.5% pairs of examined samples using only FT-IR, 90.8% pairs of examined samples using only XRF, and 95.8% pairs of examined samples using these two methods. Obtained spectra and all the available information could be used to create/build a database. The results obtained confirm the multiplicity and compatibility of toners. Additionally, it was stated that not all the samples were original (OEM).     

A study of the precursors, intermediates and reaction by-products in the synthesis of 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine and its application to forensic drug analysis

3,4-Methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA) was prepared by three synthetic routes. Analytical data from thin-layer chromatography, gas chromatography and gas chromatographymass spectrometry of the precursors (safrole and isosafrole), intermediates (isosafrole glycol, piperonylmethylketone, N-formyl-3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine, N-formyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine and 1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-bromopropane), reaction by-products and the product MDMA were obtained. Further analyses of MDMA using other techniques including ¹H- and ¹³C-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, ultraviolet spectroscopy and high performance liquid chromatography were also carried out. The results were then used as reference data for the identification of MDMA in case samples and also to establish the route of synthesis of illicity prepared MDMA by the study of trace impurities.     

Microbial degradation of illicit drugs,their precursors,and manufacturing by-products: implications for clandestine drug laboratory investigation and environmental assessment

Chemicals associated with clandestine drug laboratories are often disposed of covertly into soil, sewerage systems, or public waste management facilities. There are two significant issues relating to such dumps of materials; they might contain valuable evidence as to drug manufacture, and they might be a source of pollution. This study presents initial findings in relation to the impact microorganisms from environmental sources have upon drugs, their precursors, and manufacturing by-products. The aim of this study was to identify which chemicals associated with clandestine drug laboratories persist in the environment in order to allow forensic drug chemists to link discarded residues with the method of manufacture, and to allow the environmental impact of clandestine drug laboratories to be assessed accurately. When exposed to soil microorganisms, phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) was rapidly metabolized into mixtures of 1-phenyl-2-propanol, 1-phenyl-1,2-propanedione, 1-hydroxy-1-phenyl-2-propanone, 2-hydroxy-1-phenyl-1-propanone, and the two diastereoisomers of 1-phenyl-1,2-propanediol. On the other hand, when exposed under the same conditions, methylamphetamine sulphate (MAS) remained virtually unchanged. Implications relating to evidence gathering for forensic purposes and to environmental assessment of clandestine drug laboratories are discussed.     

Selectivity of identification of compounds from the group of phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors (PDE-5i) in falsified products from the Polish market using attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray powder diffraction

Falsified drugs are a growing problem and a great threat all over the world. Searching for easy, fast, not expensive and reproducible methods for identification of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) is an important issue. The application of ATR-IR technique for identification of phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors (PDE-5i) in falsified products from the Polish market has been demonstrated. Furthermore, the strategy of confirmation of the product's originality in a quick and easy way has been developed. The advantages of this application are: exceptional simplicity, very short measurement time, high selectivity in relation to structurally similar substances and almost no sample preparation. After validation, developed strategy has been successfully introduced into routine analysis.     

Degradation in soil of precursors and by-products associated with the illicit manufacture of methylamphetamine: implications for clandestine drug laboratory investigation

Key precursors and by-products in the Leuckardt, Nagai and dissolving metal reductive syntheses of methylamphetamine undergo degradation in soil as a result of biotic and abiotic processes. Furthermore, methylamphetamine is a product of the degradation of 1-(1',4'-cyclohexadienyl)-2-methylaminopropane and N-formylmethylamphetamine. These findings have implications for the forensic assessment of buried residues recovered from clandestine laboratory sites because markers used to infer the synthetic methods used might be absent as a result of degradation and because methylamphetamine might be present in residues as a result of degradation rather than as a direct result of its manufacture in the laboratory.     

Identification and characterization of the new designer drug 4'-methylethcathinone (4-MEC) and elaboration of a novel liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) screening method for seven different methcathinone analogs

A fast and simple LC-MS/MS method was developed for screening mephedrone, butylone, methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), flephedrone, methylone and methedrone in bulk powder samples. Samples were separated on a reverse phase column using gradient elution with mixtures of water, acetonitrile and formic acid. After optimization a limit of detection of about 2ngmL(-1) was achieved using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. Total run time was less than 8min. Typical fragmentation characteristics of the studied compounds are discussed. The method was successfully applied to several unknown bulk powder samples seized by the Hungarian Customs and Finance Guard. One of the samples contained the new designer drug 4'-methylethcathinone (4-MEC), which was identified and characterized by LC-MS/MS, NMR, FT-IR and LC-TOF-MS techniques. The method is also deemed to be applicable for the screening of simple dosage forms such as tablets and capsules.     

Cocaine,the contras,and the United States: How the U.S. government has augmented America's drug crisis

A study of Washington's connections to Honduran and other contra supporters in the illicit drug traffic shows that such gray alliances for covert operations are themselves a major part of this country's drug problem. It is true that the U.S. has arrested contra supporters on drug charges; but, time after time, these drug arrests have come after the U.S. has ceased to promote the contra faction which those arrested had been supporting. The new Bush drug strategy seems unlikely to affect the window of drug smuggling opportunity opened by Washington's relations with the corrupt Honduran military, and may well open new such windows by new grey alliances with the corrupt right-wing forces in the Andean countries of origin.

---

     

Application of solid-phase microextraction to the profiling of an illicit drug: manufacturing impurities in illicit 4-methoxyamphetamine

This article describes the application of solid-phase microextraction (SPME) to the recovery of manufacturing by-products and impurities from an illicit drug seizure. The preparation chosen for examination using this technique contained 4-methoxyamphetamine, an hallucinogenic amphetamine that has been encountered frequently in South Australia. Compounds found in the PMA preparation included 4-methoxyphenol, 4-methoxybenzaldehyde, 4-methoxyphenyl-2-propanone, 4-methoxyphenyl-2-propanol, 4-methoxyphenyl-propene, and (tentatively) 4-methyl-5-(4'-methoxyphenyl) pyrimidine. The presence of these compounds suggests that the active drug was prepared from 4-methoxybenzaldehyde via 4-methoxyphenyl-2-propanone using a Leuckardt reductive amination. In this instance, SPME was found to be a simple, rapid, and non-destructive recovery technique that gave results complementary to those provided by conventional liquid-liquid extraction. There is an indication that SPME might find application in profiling of illicit drugs.     

Both too much and too little: From elite to street crime in the transformation of the Czech Republic

A social capital theory of crime proposes that both excessively high and low levels of trust lead to crime. Low levels of trust are associated with predatory forms of street crime, while high levels of trust can lead to white collar crime and political corruption. This paper explores the role of social capital and trust in the causation of under and upperworld forms of crime in the rapidly changing circumstances of the Czech Republic. Connections between social capital and crime are the product not only of the transition to a market economy, but also of the problems of the pre-transition Czech society. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.