Are transformational and transactional types of leadership compatible? A two‐wave study of employee motivation

Transformational and transactional leadership strategies have become prominent in public administration research, but it is unclear whether they are compatible or whether they could undermine each other. We examine the combined and interactive effects of transformational and three types of transactional leadership (contingent verbal rewards, material rewards, and sanctions) on employee work motivation, conceptualized as work engagement and intrinsic motivation. Panel analyses using repeated measures of 385 leaders and 3,797 employees show that transformational leadership and contingent verbal rewards increased employee motivation. However, simultaneous use of contingent material rewards undermined the benefits of transformational leadership. Thus, the motivational potential of service‐ or community‐oriented visions was undercut when leaders also appealed to extrinsic material motives. This could help explain why financial incentives do not always have the expected benefits in public organizations. We therefore argue that research and practice should pay more attention to how different leadership strategies work in combination.     

Popularity as a Measure of Portfolio Salience? The Case of Denmark

This research note examines the connection between portfolio and the individual popularity of ministers as measured in opinion polls. It is an ongoing challenge for political science to derive measures of portfolio salience. In this research note, portfolio popularity is measured in Denmark for the period 1978 to 2019 for 24 different portfolios. Though we know little about it, it is often stated that popularity is important for ministers. If this is the case, popularity is a relevant supplement to studies of portfolio salience. The results show that there are significant differences in how different portfolios have been assessed by voters, which is an important point in itself. This shows a clear hierarchy within cabinet. The results are discussed in relation to ministerial durability, portfolio salience and issue ownership. It is suggested that cross national studies of portfolio popularity should be carried out.     

Adjusting for Confounding with Text Matching

We identify situations in which conditioning on text can address confounding in observational studies. We argue that a matching approach is particularly well-suited to this task, but existing matching methods are ill-equipped to handle high-dimensional text data. Our proposed solution is to estimate a low-dimensional summary of the text and condition on this summary via matching. We propose a method of text matching, topical inverse regression matching, that allows the analyst to match both on the topical content of confounding documents and the probability that each of these documents is treated. We validate our approach and illustrate the importance of conditioning on text to address confounding with two applications: the effect of perceptions of author gender on citation counts in the international relations literature and the effects of censorship on Chinese social media users.     

Digital Communication between Local Authorities and Citizens in Denmark

Today options for digital communication exist in all Danish municipalities. But are local councils aware of the democratic potentials of the new forms of political communication? This article focuses on the democratic dimensions of web design. To what extent do the websites improve access to information on public affairs and stimulate participation of citizens in local politics? To answer these questions, a screening of all 275 Danish municipal websites was carried out on two dimensions: information/transparency and contact/dialogue. The findings show great variation between best and worst practice in terms of democracy. Furthermore, the findings show that size and income per inhabitant explain some of the variation, whereas the political colour of the party in office has no significance.     

B: Reviews: general

MIDDLE EAST STUDIES IN DENMARK. Edited by LARS ERSLEV ANDERSEN. Odense, Odense University Press, 1994. 215pp. DKK 200.

APPROACHES TO THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE EAST: INTERVIEWS WITH LEADING MIDDLE EAST HISTORIANS. By NANCY ELIZABETH GALLAGHER. Reading, Garnet Publishing, 1994. viii, 197pp.

A HISTORY OF THE MODERN MIDDLE EAST. By WILLIAM L. CLEVELAND. Boulder and Oxford, Westview Press, 1994. 503pp. Tables, maps, photographs, glossary, select bibliography.

MUHAMMAD AND THE ORIGINS OF ISLAM. By F.E. PETERS. Albany, State University of New York Press, 1994. 334pp.

A READER ON CLASSICAL ISLAM. By F.E. PETERS. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1994. 420pp.

BEFORE REVELATION: THE BOUNDARIES OF MUSLIM MORAL THOUGHT. By A. KEVIN REINHART. (SUNY Series in Middle Eastern Studies.) Albany, State University of New York Press, 1995. 255pp.

THE DIVINE GUIDE IN EARLY SH'ISM: THE SOURCES OF ESOTERICISM. By MOHAMMAD ALI AMIR‐MOEZZI. Translated by DAVID STREIGHT. Albany, SUNY Press, 1994. 279pp.

IMAGINAL WORLDS: IBN AL‐'ARABI AND THE PROBLEM OF RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY. By WILLIAM C. CHITTICK. Albany, SUNY Press, 1994. vii, 208pp. $18.95 (pb.).

RETHINKING ISLAM: COMMON QUESTION, UNCOMMON ANSWERS. By MOHAMMED ARKOUN. Translated and edited by ROBERT D. LEE. Oxford, Westview Press, 1994. 139pp.

A YOUNG MUSLIM'S GUIDE TO THE MODERN WORLD. By SEYYED HOSSEIN NASR. Cambridge, Islamic Texts Society, 1993. 270pp.

PIOUS PASSENGERS. THE HAJJ IN EARLIER TIMES. By M.N. PEARSON. London, Hurst, 1994. viii, 217 pp. Illustrated.

PILGRIMS AND SULTANS: THE HAJJ UNDER THE OTTOMANS. By SURAIYA FAROQHI. London, I.B. Tauris, 1994. xii, 244pp. 1 map.

DEMOCRACY WITHOUT DEMOCRATS? THE RENEWAL OF POLITICS IN THE MUSLIM WORLD. Edited by GHASSAN SALAMÉ. London and New York, I. B. Taurus, 1994. 340pp., figures and tables. £45.

THE PROPHET'S PULPIT: ISLAMIC PREACHING IN CONTEMPORARY EGYPT. By PATRICK D. GAFFNEY. University of California Press, 1994. 367pp. Map, bibliographic references and index.

THE WOMEN'S AWAKENING IN EGYPT: CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND THE PRESS. By BETH BARON. New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1994. 259pp. £20.

THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URB ANA‐CHAMPAIGN

LE DESERT ET LA GLOIRE: LES MEMOIRES D'UN AGENT SYRIEN DE NAPOLEON. By FATHALLAH SAYIGH. Translated and edited by JOSEPH CHELHOD. Paris, Gallimard, 1991. 304pp.

AMERICAN CONSULS IN THE HOLY LAND: 1832–1914. By RUTH KARK. Jerusalem, Magnes Press & Hebrew University; Detroit, Wayne State University Press, 1994. 388pp. 28 plates.

PALESTINE IN TRANSFORMATION, 1856–1882: STUDIES IN SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. By ALEXANDER SCHÖLCH. Translated by WILLIAM C. YOUNG and MICHAEL C. GERRITY. Washington, D.C., Institute for Palestine Studies, 1993. xii, 351pp. 8 maps, 44 tables. $29.95.

AN OCCASION FOR WAR: CIVIL CONFLICT IN LEBANON AND DAMASCUS IN 1860. By LEILA TARAZI FAWAZ. London, Centre for Lebanese Studies and I.B. Tauris, 1994. 302pp.

THE ROOTS OF SEPARATISM IN PALESTINE: BRITISH ECONOMIC POLICY 1920–1929. By BARBARA J. SMITH. London, I.B. Tauris, 1993. 258pp. £39.50.

SYRIA'S QUEST FOR INDEPENDENCE, 1939–1945. By SALMA MARDAM BEY. Reading, Ithaca Press, 1994. 288pp.

STAAT UND GESELLSCHAFT IN SYRIEN, 1970–1989. By VOLKER PERTHES. (Schriften des Deutschen Orient‐Institut.) Hamburg, Deutsches Orient‐Institut, 1990. 340pp. DM 39.‐

ÖFFENTLICHE UND PRIVATE LANDWIRTSCHAFT IN SYRIEN. EINE WIRTSCHAFTS‐ UND SOZIALGEOGRAPHISCHE UNTERSUCHUNG IM NORDWESTEN UND NORDOSTEN DES LANDES. By HANS HOPFINGER. (Erlanger Geographische Arbeiten, Sonderband 19.). Erlangen, Frankische Geographische Gesellschaft, 1991. 348pp, 24 illustrations, 77 tables, 13 photographs, 5 coloured maps.

LA GUERRE DU LIBAN: DE LA DISSENSION NATIONALE AU CONFLIT REGIONAL, 1975–1982. By SAMIR KASSIR. Paris, Karthala, 1994. 510pp.

A HISTORY OF THE DRUZES. By KAIS M. FIRRO. (Handbuch der Orientalistik, Ergänszungsband 9.) Leiden, Brill, 1992. 396pp. 9 maps.

VILLAGE, STEPPE AND STATE: THE SOCIAL ORIGINS OF MODERN JORDAN. Edited by EUGENE L. ROGAN and TARIQ TELL. London and New York, British Academic Press, 1994. xxviii, 226pp.

JORDAN'S INTER‐ARAB RELATIONS: THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF ALLIANCE MAKING. By LAURIE A. BRAND. New York, Columbia University Press, 1995. x, 350pp.

THE PALESTINIANS IN ISRAEL: IS ISRAEL THE STATE OF ALL ITS CITIZENS AND ‘ABSENTEES'? Translated and edited by NUR MASALHA. Haifa, Galilee Center for Social Research, 1993. $12 (pb).

FASTING AND FEASTING IN MOROCCO: WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION IN RAMADAN. By MARJO BUITELAAR. (Mediterranea Series.) Oxford and Providence, Berg Publishers, 1993. 203pp. 9 photographs, 15 illustrations, glossary.

IMPERIAL IDENTITIES: STEREOTYPING, PREJUDICE AND RACE IN COLONIAL ALGERIA. By PATRICIA M. LORCIN. (Society and Culture in the Modern Middle East.) London, I.B. Tauris, 1995. x, 323pp. 1 map.

THE MAKING OF SAUDI ARABIA 1916–1936: FROM CHIEFTAINCY TO MONARCHICAL STATE. By JOSEPH KOSTINER. (Studies in Middle Eastern History.) New York and Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1993. xii, 260pp. Maps. £35.00

OIL, POWER AND PRINCIPLE: IRAN'S OIL NATIONALIZATION AND ITS AFTERMATH. By MOSTAFA ELM. New York, Syracuse University Press, 1994. xvii, 413pp. Map, tables (pb).

AN OTTOMAN STATESMAN IN WAR & PEACE: AHMED RESMI EFENDI, 1700–1783. By VIRGINIA H. AKSAN. (The Ottoman Empire & its Heritage, 3.) Leiden, Brill, 1995. xviii, 253pp. Illustration, maps, glossary of place names, terms and phrases, bibliography, index.

TURKEY: A MODERN HISTORY. By ERIK J. ZÜRCHER. London, I.B. Tauris, 1993. 381pp., maps, biographical notes.

THE SEED AND THE SOIL: GENDER AND COSMOLOGY IN TURKISH VILLAGE SOCIETY. By CAROL DELANEY. (Comparative Studies on Muslim Societies, 11.) Berkeley, University of California Press, 1991. xiii, 360pp. Illustrations. Photographs. Index.

INDIA AND THE MIDDLE EAST. By PRITHVI RAM MUDIAM. London, British Academic Press, 1994. ix, 232pp. £39.50.

ARAB WOMEN. Edited by JUDITH E. TUCKER. (Indiana Series in Arab and Islamic Studies.) Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana University Press, 1993. 256pp., index.

WOMEN, ISLAM AND THE STATE. By DENIZ KANDIYOTI. London, Macmillan, 1991. 271 pp., index.

VISITING ARAB COUNTRIES OF THE MIDDLE EAST: A PERSONAL GUIDE FOR WOMEN. By PENELOPE TURING. Glasgow, Centre for Management Training and Development in the Middle East, n.d. [1994]. 26pp.

MEDIEVAL AGRICULTURE AND ISLAMIC SCIENCE: THE ALMANAC OF A YEMENI SULTAN. By DANIEL MARTIN VARISCO. (Publications on the Near East, No. 6.) Seattle & London, University of Washington Press, 1994. xv, 349pp. 2 maps.

REORIENTATIONS: ARABIC AND PERSIAN POETRY. Edited by SUZANNE PINCKNEY STETKEVYCH. Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana University Press, 1994. x, 269pp. £25.

THE ARABIAN NIGHTS: A COMPANION. By ROBERT IRWIN. London: Allen Lane, The Penguin Press. 1994. 344pp. £20.

NAGIB MAHFOUZ: THE PURSUIT OF MEANING. By RASHEED EL‐ENANY. London and New York, Routledge, 1993. xv, 271pp. £12.99 (pb).

ARAB COMIC STRIPS: POLITICS OF AN EMERGING MASS CULTURE. By ALLEN DOUGLAS and FEDWA MALTI‐DOUGLAS. Bloomington & Indianapolis, Indiana University Press, 1994. xiii, 263pp.

ISLAMIC SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING. By DONALD R. HILL. (Islamic Surveys.) Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 1994. 250pp. 78 illustrations. £16.95 (pb), £39.95 (hb).

CAUGHT IN TIME: GREAT PHOTOGRAPHIC ARCHIVES. KHIVA. BUKHARA. SAMARKAND. Series editor: VITALY NAUMKIN. Reading, Garnet Publishing, 1993. 127pp. (Khiva); 159pp. (Bukhara); 159pp. (Samarkand).

THE CORAL BUILDINGS OF SUAKIN: ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, DESIGN AND DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS IN A RED SEA PORT. By J.‐P. GREENLAW. London and New York, Kegan Paul International, 1995.132pp.     

Al Qaeda in the Tribal Areas of Pakistan and Beyond

After the U.S. led coalition forces attacked Al Qaeda and Taliban infrastructure in Afghanistan beginning in October 2001, the epicenter of global terrorism moved from Afghanistan to tribal Pakistan. Known as the Federally Administered Tribal Area (FATA) in Pakistan, this region has emerged as the premier hunting ground for the Al Qaeda leadership. With the co-option of new groups in FATA and its adjacent North Western Frontier Province (NWFP), the Al Qaeda threat has proliferated. The threat posed by the Afghan Taliban has been compounded with the addition of a new range of actors notably the Pakistani Taliban. Working together with multiple threat groups, both foreign and Pakistani, Al Qaeda directs its global jihad campaign from FATA. Unless the terrorist enclave is cleared on the Afghan-Pakistan border, the threat to Afghanistan and mainland Pakistan will continue. This article seeks to map the evolution of Al Qaeda and its associated groups since their relocation to FATA.     

From conditions of equality to demands of justice: equal freedom,motivation and justification in Hobbes,Rousseau and Rawls

Equal freedom is the common starting point for most contractual theories of justice from Hobbes and Rousseau to Rawls. But while equal freedom defines a common starting point for these theories, this does not result in a general consensus on the conception of justice. On the contrary, different ways of conceptualizing the contractual starting point leads to different conceptions of the demands of justice. To fully understand the relationship between equal freedom and justice we therefore first need to explicate how and why the initial condition of equality is transformed into demands of justice. In this paper we discuss how this transformation takes place in the theories of Hobbes, Rousseau and Rawls, with particular emphasis on the vexed relationship between motivation and justification.