Mitochondrial DNA identification of game and harvested freshwater fish species

The use of DNA in forensics has grown rapidly for human applications along with the concomitant development of bioinformatics and demographic databases to help fully realize the potential of this molecular information. Similar techniques are also used routinely in many wildlife cases, such as species identification in food products, poaching and the illegal trade of endangered species. The use of molecular techniques in forensic cases related to wildlife and the development of associated databases has, however, mainly focused on large mammals with the exception of a few high-profile species. There is a need to develop similar databases for aquatic species for fisheries enforcement, given the large number of exploited and endangered fish species, the intensity of exploitation, and challenges in identifying species and their derived products. We sequenced a 500bp fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene from representative individuals from 26 harvested fish taxa from Ontario, Canada, focusing on species that support major commercial and recreational fisheries. Ontario provides a unique model system for the development of a fish species database, as the province contains an evolutionarily diverse array of freshwater fish families representing more than one third of all freshwater fish in Canada. Inter- and intraspecific sequence comparisons using phylogenetic analysis and a BLAST search algorithm provided rigorous statistical metrics for species identification. This methodology and these data will aid in fisheries enforcement, providing a tool to easily and accurately identify fish species in enforcement investigations that would have otherwise been difficult or impossible to pursue.     

Compliance by WTO Members with Adverse WTO Dispute Settlement Rulings: The Record to Date

The generally positive record of Members in complying with adverserulings by panels, the Appellate Body or both has been an importantfactor in the success of the WTO dispute settlement system todate. In approximately 90 percent of the adopted reports, oneor more violations of WTO obligations have been found by panelsand/or the Appellate Body. In virtually all of these cases theWTO Member found to be in violation has indicated its intentionto bring itself into compliance and the record indicates thatin most cases has already done so. It is noticeable, if notunsurprising, that compliance has been more rapid where theWTO violations can be corrected through administrative actionas opposed to legislative action. A closer review of the compliancerecord of the United States and the European Communities, whichtogether have been the object of approximately half of all adverseWTO rulings, shows that these Members have generally succeededin bringing themselves into compliance with such rulings, althoughboth Members have experienced some residual compliance difficultiesin a small number of cases. As a final note, the overall positiverecord of Members in complying with adverse WTO rulings is reflectedin, and confirmed by, the low number of cases where Membershave sought and received authorization to impose retaliatorymeasures.     

Seeking One's Day in Court: Chinese regime responsiveness to international legal norms on AIDS carriers' and pollution victims' rights

Over the last two decades, international actors have sought to diffuse repertoires of contentious practices, including rights-based litigation, to China. Multilateral organizations, foundations, and international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) have used funding and training programs conducted in China and at law schools abroad in order to raise the capacity of Chinese attorneys, NGOs, judges, and legal officials to improve rule of law and protection of human rights. In particular, international actors have worked with Chinese NGOs and state officials to found legal aid centers that provide information and advocacy to protect the rights of pollution victims and AIDS carriers. Legal aid centers, attorneys, and their financial backers seek to bring forward ‘impact litigation’ cases in the courts to establish model decisions for other plaintiffs, attorneys, and judges to follow. To date, environmental groups have enjoyed more success gaining access to the courts and in receiving favorable court judgments than have AIDS groups. In many cases involving AIDS victims, attorneys and legal aid centers seek compensation through alternative dispute resolution methods rather than litigation, which do not establish a legal precedent. This paper explores the reasons for the divergent outcomes of efforts to protect the rights of pollution victims and AIDS carriers in the courts. Primarily, the institutional particularities and contexts of the Ministry of Environmental Protection and the Ministry of Public Health have allowed international legal norms related to the environment to take deeper root than those related to AIDS.     

Latent fingermark development on a range of porous substrates using ninhydrin analogs--a comparison with ninhydrin and 1,8-diazofluoren

Three relatively new reagents for developing latent fingermarks on porous substrates, 1,2-indandione (IND), 5-methylthioninhydrin (5-MTN), and lawsone, are compared with the more widely used ninhydrin and 1,8-diazofluoren (DFO). Developed latent fingermark visualization on 10 different substrates comprising colored papers, cardboard, and cellophane rather than conventional printer and writing/notepad paper is assessed using latent fingermark deposits from 48 donors. Results show improved fluorescent fingermark visualization using IND compared with DFO on a range of colored cardboards and thick white paper, thus extending the range of substrates known to yield improved visualization with IND. Adding zinc chloride to IND failed to yield any further improvement in fluorescent fingermark visualization. 5-MTN (with and without zinc chloride posttreatment) showed no improvement in visualization compared with ninhydrin and DFO although visible fingermarks were developed. Lawsone produced fluorescent visible fingermarks only with white substrates, which were inferior to those produced with DFO.     

Physical components of soft-tissue ballistic wounding and their involvement in the generation of blood backspatter*

Gunshot backspatter comprises biological material expelled backward through bullet entry holes. Crime scene investigators analyze backspatter patterns to infer wounding circumstances. An understanding of the mechanism of backspatter generation, and the relationship between spatter patterns and bullet and tissue characteristics, would enhance the predictive value of such analysis. We examined soft-tissue ballistic wounding responses to determine the underlying components and how these might be relevant to the generation of backspatter. We identified five mechanistic components to ballistic wounding (elastic, viscous, crushing, cutting, and thermal), each related to mechanical disciplines (respectively, solid mechanics, fluid mechanics, fracture mechanics, rheology, and thermodynamics). We identified potential roles for these five components in backspatter formation and provide a scenario whereby a sequence of events incorporating these components could lead to backspatter generation and expulsion. This research provides a framework for the mathematical representation, and subsequent computational predictive modeling, of backspatter generation and pattern formation.     

Policy,Practicalities, and PACE s. 24: The Subsuming of the Necessity Criteria in Arrest Decision Making by Frontline Police Officers

PACE, as amended by the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005, establishes a complex framework of factors that police officers must consider during arrest decision making. Officers must possess a reason to arrest, it must be necessary to arrest for that reason, and they must give at least a ‘cursory consideration’ to alternatives. Based on a four‐year ethnographic study of frontline officers from two forces in Northern England, we argue that the 2005 reforms have not achieved their aims. The new regime tasks officers with undertaking a complex legal assessment prior to arrest, but officers are often confused about the necessity criteria which, moreover, is typically a minor consideration in contrast to demanding practical and policy pressures. This means that unlawful and non‐human‐rights‐compliant arrests continue to be regularly made and, equally significantly, many suspects are escaping the criminal justice system because officers are not considering arrest alternatives.     

The adoption of children from out-of-home care: how decision-makers explain the low rates of adoption in Victoria,Australia

The adoption of children from out-of-home care is uncommon in Australia and rarely occurs in the state of Victoria. This paper reports on how professionals involved in making decisions about the permanent placement of children explain the current rates of adoption from out-of-home care in Victoria. Interviews were conducted with eight child welfare specialists, eight adoption and permanent care specialists and five judicial officers. The current low rates of adoption were attributed to the effect of current legislation, the impact of past adoption practices and the establishment of a culture in Victoria in which adoption is now rarely considered an option for children in out-of-home care.