The European Community and the Adoption of International Food Standards within the Codex Alimentarius Commission

Abstract: This article examines the way the European Community defends its interests in food safety matters within the Codex Alimentarius Commission. It shows that the European Community has strengthened its position as a policymaker within the Codex Commission. It also describes how the European members of the Codex Commission engaged (with mixed results) in the defence of certain principles typical of European food policy. These controversial principles are the precautionary principle, the need to consider factors other than science in determining food standards, and the need to label and make traceable food derived from biotechnology. Lastly, the article evaluates the function of the Codex Commission. Since, in at least two cases the discussions within the Codex Commission did not prevent WTO litigation, the value of the Codex Commission may be questioned. However, the overall assessment of the Codex Commission's activity is positive, since it provides an important and not easily replaceable forum to debate food safety issues, which are particularly sensitive for Codex members of the European Community.     

Is It Bad to Be Good? An Exploration of Aggressive and Prosocial Behavior Subtypes in Adolescence

Research in aggressive behavior development has distinguished between proactive (i.e., intended to achieve an instrumental goal) and reactive (i.e., emitted as an emotional response to provocation) subtypes of aggression. A similar distinction has not been made with regard to prosocial behavior. In this study, subtypes of both aggressive and prosocial behavior and their relation to aggression-supporting social cognitions were examined in a sample of 250 early and middle adolescents. Adolescents completed behavior rating scales and a measure of their beliefs about the acceptability of responding aggressively. Principal components analysis identified 3 subtypes of aggressive and prosocial behavior: aggressive, prosocial, and proactive prosocial. Proactive prosocial behavior was positively correlated with aggression and aggression-supporting beliefs, while other prosocial behavior was negatively correlated with these constructs. Findings are discussed in the context of aggressive behavior development and with regard to traditional views of prosocial behavior as altruistic.     

Beyond Territorial Contiguity: Issues at Stake in Democratic Militarized Interstate Disputes

Scholars of international politics have been slow to address the fundamental issues that ground interstate conflict. Territory has frequently been cited as a primary source of contention among states, but it remains only one issue and not even the one most prevalent in the post–World War II time period. We take the first step toward understanding the broader theoretical link between regime type, issues, and militarized conflict by collecting new data on the issues in dispute between democracies from 1946 to 1992. We findthat (1) a large proportion of the militarized disputes between democracies in the post-WWII period involve fisheries, maritime boundaries, and resources of the sea, (2) well-established democracies are able to remove territory as a contentious issue among them, (3) disputes between democracies have become less severe and shorter in duration over time, and (4) a majority of the post-WWII militarized disputes between democracies are not resolved. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of these empirical findings for the democraticpeace literature.     

Patient involvement and the politics of methodology

Abstract: The idea of including patient perspectives in health‐services planning and evaluation is increasingly embraced by Canadian health authorities. This article argues that the validity of a particular method is not simply a matter of its scientific rigour; rather, it depends on what one considers to be the meaning and purpose of patient involvement. Perspectives on patient involvement can be conceptualized in terms of a continuum from consumerism (patients as customers who deserve to be satisfied) to participatory democracy (patients as citizens with a right to participate in shaping public services). These ideologies are associated with different methods (market research versus participatory research) and, crucially, yield different results. Evidence from diverse sources suggests that, as methods move across the continuum towards participatory democracy, 1) participants move from expressing simple opinions to considering broader issues, context and complexity, and 2) participants' perspectives shift from individualism (personal interest) towards collectivism (common interest). As well, different approaches have different strengths and risks in terms of the ultimate goal of patient involvement: change to services. This article outlines the implications of the “politics of methodology” for decisions about how best to involve patients in the design and evaluation of health services. Sommaire : L'inclusion des perspectives des patients dans la planification et l'évaluation des services de santé est une idée à laquelle adhèrent de plus en plus les autorités sanitaires canadiennes. Le présent article soutient que la validité d'une méthode particulière ne dépend pas simplement de sa rigueur scientifique, mais plutôt de ce que l'on considère être la signification et le but de la participation des patients. Les perspectives sur la participation des patients peuvent être conceptualisées en termes d'un continuum, allant du consommateurisme (les patients étant considérés comme des clients qui méritent que l'on réponde à leurs besoins) à une démocratie participative (les patients étant considérés comme des citoyens ayant le droit de participer au façonnement des services publics). Ces idéologies sont associées à différentes méthodes (recherche de marché versus recherche participative) et, essentiellement, donnent lieu à des résultats différents. Comme le laissent entendre différentes sources, alors que les méthodes progressent dans la direction d'une démocratie participative, 1) les participants délaissent l'expression de simples opinions pour aborder des questions, un contexte et une complexité plus vastes, et 2) les perspectives des participants passent de l'individualisme (intérêts personnels) au collectivisme (intérêt commun). En outre, différentes approches présentent des points forts et des risques différents pour ce qui est de l'objectif ultime de la participation des patients, à savoir les changements à apporter aux services. Le présent article décrit brièvement les implications de la « politique de méthodologie » pour ce qui est des décisions concernant le meilleur moyen de faire intervenir les patients dans la conception et l'évaluation des services de santé.     

Psychological models of mental disorder, human rights, and compulsory mental health care in the community

Recent amendments to the 1983 Mental Health Act in the UK (Mental Health Act 2007) include the controversial provision for: “supervised treatment in the community for suitable patients following an initial period of detention and treatment in hospital”. This provision is widespread, and more formal, in other English-speaking jurisdictions. Reviews of the international literature, human rights considerations and the perspective of psychological approaches to mental health care suggest that proposed ‘supervised community treatment orders’ are valuable, lawful, and compatible with the European Convention on Human Rights if certain specific conditions are met. Provisions for ‘supervised community treatment orders’ in the UK should be supported, but with the provisos that: the powers of the Mental Health Act are limited as in Scotland, to persons whose “ability to make decisions about the provision of [care] is significantly impaired”, that each order is time-limited and subject to review by a properly constituted Tribunal, and that the use of such orders should represent a benefit to people in terms of more appropriate treatment, or be a least restrictive alternative, or better preserve the person's private and family life.     

Challenging custom: rethinking national population surveillance policy in a global public health age

This article examines the current state of disease surveillance and reporting in the United States and seeks to answer two central questions: first, whether the increasing emphasis on the global importance of public health policies compels a fundamental reexamination of the long-standing deferential approach to state power where matters of population health surveillance are concerned and, second, how the nation's long-standing deferential legal customs might be modified to address the growing emphasis on global public health policy that is undergirded by technological advances. We examine the International Health Regulations, or IHR (2005), and suggest that these regulations offer a powerful impetus for reevaluating U.S. legal custom concerning the policy and practice of population health surveillance, not only as a matter of U.S. law but also as a core dimension of U.S. legal obligations to other nations, as embodied in international agreements and treaties. We find that if the political will exists to change the domestic disease surveillance and reporting system, the federal government has the power to act. Questions remain, however, about whether the public health and legislative communities are willing to challenge current customs or even if they desire to do so.     

Social Policies and Center‐Right Governments in Argentina and Chile

Latin America's “left turn” expanded cash transfers and public services, contributing to lower poverty and inequality. Recently, right‐leaning candidates and parties have begun to win back seats in the legislature, and in some cases have captured the executive branch. This shift has sparked debate about the future of Latin America's welfare states. This article analyzes social policy reforms enacted by two recent right‐leaning governments: that of Sebastián Piñera in Chile (2010–14) and Mauricio Macri in Argentina (2015–). It finds that contrary to neoliberal adjustment policies of the past, neither Macri nor Piñera engaged in privatization or deep spending cuts. Instead, both administrations facilitated a process of policy drift in some sectors and marginal expansion in others. Policy legacies and the strength of the opposition help to explain these outcomes, suggesting that Latin America's political context has been transformed by the consolidation of democracy and the experience of left party rule.     

Latent Fingermark Aging Patterns (Part III): Discontinuity Index as One Indicator of Degradation

This article is the third in a series of reports exploring quantifiable visual parameters of the aging process of latent fingermarks. On this occasion, research is focused on the occurrence of ridge discontinuities (i.e. breakages) as a function of time. Experiment variables included type of secretion (eccrine and sebaceous), substrate (glass and plastic), and exposure to natural light (dark, shade, and direct light) over a 6 months period. Fingermarks were sequentially visualized with titanium dioxide powder, photographed, and the number of naturally occurring ridge discontinuities subsequently evaluated. A semi‐quantitative value, named Discontinuity Index, was used to better characterize this aging parameter. Results indicated that ridges of sebaceous depositions on glass were generally less affected by the environmental conditions compared with those on plastic surface. In addition, aging in darkness was not always the best condition for preservation, and the direct exposure to light seemed not to affect the degradation under certain conditions.