A contingency theory of policy innovation: how different theories explain the ratification of the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol

This article tests theories, elaborated by rationalists, constructivists, and network theorists, that explain the ratification of international environmental treaties. Rationalists argue that countries’ material self-interest and political and economic conditions affect the likelihood of countries ratifying treaties. Constructivists argue that countries are influenced by exposure to world society. Structural embeddedness theory argues that countries are influenced by neighboring countries, religion, language, and economic peers, and those whom they have network ties to via diplomatic relations and IGO memberships. The article is a study of how these factors affected the ratification of two environmental treaties: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol. The results show that political and economic factors, peer behavior, and network ties were more important in explaining the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol than the UNFCCC. Similar to von Stein (J Conflict Resolut 52:243–268, 2008), it found that exposure to world society was important in the UNFCCC. The authors suggested that the differences were due to the demands which the Kyoto Protocol placed on countries in contrast to the “softness” of the UNFCCC. They also discussed how social influence—based on a variety of inter-governmental relations and affiliations—may signal a change in the structure of the global environmental regime and how it conducts its business.     

Age estimation using cytochrome c oxidase activity analysis

Recently, in the field of forensic medicine the number of unidentified cadavers has increased due to mass disasters and international terrorism. In addition to the conventional anthropological methods, a simple and precise method to estimate the age of these unidentified cadavers to assist in the personal identification is necessary. On the other hand, many researchers have reported that mitochondrial respiratory activity decreases with aging because of the production of reactive oxidative species in the process of ATP generation. Therefore, it may be possible for us to estimate human age by analyzing mitochondrial activity. In this report we attempted to analyze cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) activity, and the amount of protein and mRNA expression in various aged rats. The age of human subjects was estimated through the analysis of human CCO activity from 28 actual forensic cases. The CCO activity, the amount of protein and the mRNA expression increased in the 3rd week and decreased afterwards in rats. Furthermore, human CCO activity was decreased gradually with aging. Therefore, CCO activity analysis may be useful for age estimation in forensic cases.     

Praj?��karagupta on the Two Truths and Argumentation

How is it possible to say that truth can be of one kind at the conventional level and totally different in the ultimate plane? As Matilal (1971, p. 154) points out, Kum??rila (ca. 600?C650), a M??m???saka philosopher, claims that the Buddhist doctrine of two truths is ??a kind of philosophical ??double-talk??.?? It is Prajñ??karagupta (ca. 750?C810), a Buddhist logician, who tries to give a direct answer to this question posed by Kum??rila from the Buddhist side. He argues that even a M??m???saka cannot demonstrate the validity (pr??m???ya) of the Veda without accepting two truth levels. His point is this. Consider the proposition to be proved: the Veda is valid. If the Veda is already known as valid, then it is useless to prove this proposition. But if it is already known as invalid, then it is impossible to prove this proposition. Therefore in the argument to prove the proposition, the Veda is not to be regarded either as valid or as invalid. This means that at the first stage of the argument one has the concept of the Veda as neutral in validity. However, as soon as one acquires the knowledge of the Veda as valid through the argument, one has to repudiate such a conception of the Veda. The acceptance of the Veda as neutral in validity is to the acceptance of the Veda as valid as the conventional truth is to the ultimate truth.     

Application of Postmortem 3D‐CT Facial Reconstruction for Personal Identification*

Abstract: Postmortem computed tomography (CT) images can show internal findings related to the cause of death, and it can be a useful method for forensic diagnosis. In this study, we scanned a ready‐made box by helical CT on 2‐mm slices in a mobile CT scanner and measured each side of the box to assess whether reconstructed images are useful for superimposition. The mean difference between the actual measurements and the measurements on the three‐dimensional (3D) reconstructed images (3D‐CT images) is 0.9 mm; we regarded it as having no effect on reconstruction for the superimposition method. Furthermore, we could get 3D‐CT images of the skull, which were consistent with the actual skull, indicating that CT images can be applied to superimposition for identification. This study suggested that postmortem CT images can be applied as superimpositions for unidentified cases, and thinner slices or cone beam CT can be a more precise tool.     

Usefulness of dura mater in providing DNA samples for identifying cadavers

We examined the usefulness of the dura mater in identifying human remains. Dura mater was collected from 50 cadavers, including drowned, charred, and mummified remains. The STR genotype using the AmpFlSTR Identifiler Kit could be typed at 15 STR and amelogenin loci in 30 samples of 33 cases. Furthermore, the ABO genotype and amelogenin using gel-based methods could be typed in 44 samples of 50 cases. In cases with successful typing of STR, ABO-DNA, and amelogenin, the longest time after death was from 12 to 26 days in a drowned body. The minimum quantity of dura mater required for DNA extraction was about 2.5 mg, dried and fixed by ethanol, in a cadaver 15 h after death. The state of the DNA from the dura mater from the calvaria may be better than that from the basis cranii interna. We found that DNA from dura mater is one of the most useful samples for forensic identification.     

Age estimation by measuring the racemization of aspartic acid from total amino acid content of several types of bone and rib cartilage: a preliminary account

Age estimation has been often performed based on the rate of aspartic acid racemization using bones. In this study, we investigated various kinds of bone and a cartilage for suitability to estimate age by racemization. Ten male cadavers aged 22 to 77 years at death were selected, and bone specimens and cartilage were taken from seven sites in each individual. The rate of racemization of aspartic acid among total amino acid contained in each specimen was analyzed by gas chromatography. The correlation coefficient between the rate of racemization and chronological age was relatively high in the sternum, skull, and femur. The rates of aspartic acid racemization were high in the costal cartilage, femur, and skull. In addition, we found that the rate of racemization was only slightly lower after the second irrigation than after the first irrigation in femur and skull bone specimens, but those of others were significantly lower. These findings showed that among the six different bones and rib cartilage, the skull and femur might be used most effectively for age estimation using total amino acid fraction.     

Peer Reactions,Peer Behavior,Student Attitudes,and Student Deviance: a Comparison of College Students in Japan and the USA

This study presents evidence on the cross-cultural generalizability of differential association/social learning theory by testing whether the causal processes of learning attitudes toward deviance, posited by the theory, are equally applicable, and the causal links, specified by the theory, are equally strong in two diverse cultures—the USA and Japan. Drawing on the literature concerning cultural variability in individualism-collectivism, we predicted that the effects of peer reactions to deviance and peer deviance on a person’s attitudes toward deviance should be stronger in Japan than in the USA, and that the mediating effect of a person’s attitudes on the relationship of peer reactions and peer deviance to a person’s deviance should be weaker among Japanese than among Americans. Analyses of comparable survey data from college students in the USA (N?=?625) and Japan (N?=?591) provide generally supportive, but somewhat mixed, evidence regarding our predictions. In both countries, peer reactions to deviance predicted student attitudes toward deviance more strongly than did peer deviance. Peer deviance strongly predicted student deviance, while peer reactions to deviance predicted less strongly, and the effects were mediated by student attitudes in both countries. Contrary to the hypotheses, peer reactions and peer deviance did not predict student attitudes more strongly in Japan than in the USA. Also, peer deviance predicted student deviance more strongly in the USA than in Japan. In agreement with the expectations, the relation between student attitudes and student deviance was stronger in the USA than in Japan.

     

Sudden Death from Cardiopulmonary Arrest on Arrival of a Patient with Pulmonary Tuberculosis: A Case Diagnosed by Postmortem CT and Autopsy

Sudden death due to massive hemoptysis during management of tuberculosis occurs in a considerable number of patients. However, when massive airway hemorrhage occurs in a patient in whom tuberculosis has not been confirmed and a blood is not apparent externally on the face/body, it is difficult to immediately identify the cause of death as airway obstruction by tuberculous bleeding in the airway. We encountered an 83‐year‐old Japanese woman with her medical history included treatment of tuberculosis in her 20s who was in cardiopulmonary arrest on arrival (CPAOA), and the cause of sudden death could not initially be identified. Postmortem CT (PMCT) and autopsy revealed that the cause of sudden death was airway obstruction/asphyxia by tuberculous massive airway hemorrhage. Identification of the cause of death facilitated a subsequent active contact investigation and led to prevention of secondary tuberculosis infection.