An extremely sensitive species-specific ARMS PCR test for the presence of tiger bone DNA

The survival of the tiger (Panthera tigris) is seriously threatened by poaching to provide raw materials for traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs). Most highly prized are the tiger's bones, which are used in combination with other animal and plant derivatives in pills and plasters for the treatment of rheumatism and other ailments. Hundreds of patent remedies have been produced which claim to contain tiger bone, but proof of its presence is needed if legislation prohibiting the trade in endangered species is to be enforced.A highly sensitive tiger-specific real-time PCR assay has been developed to address this problem. Using primers specific to the tiger mitochondrial cytochrome b gene, successful amplification has been reliably achieved from blood, hair and bone as well as from a range of TCMs spiked with 0.5% tiger bone. Although capable of detecting fewer than 10 substrate molecules, the seven varieties of TCM pills and plasters tested showed no detectable trace of tiger DNA before spiking. Furthermore, sequencing several "tiger bone" fragments seized from TCM shops has shown that they actually originated from cattle and pigs. The potential effects of traditional bone preparation methods, evidence that much lower concentrations are used than alleged on TCM packaging, and substitution of bones from other species all suggest a low likelihood of detecting tiger DNA in patent medicines. Despite this, the basic methods have been thoroughly proven and can be readily applied to derivatives from other Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) protected species, providing a rapid and highly sensitive forensic test for species of origin. Potential applications to the monitoring of wild populations are demonstrated by the successful identification of shed hairs and faecal samples.     

Violence against women: outcome complexity and implications for assessment and treatment

This article reviews the major forms of violence against women, including sexual assault, intimate-relationship violence, and stalking and outlines the known psychological effects of such victimization. Also discussed are a number of variables that combine to determine the effects of such victimization, including type and characteristics of the assault; victim variables such as demographics, psychological reactions at the time of the trauma, previous victimization history, current or previous psychological difficulties, and general coping style; and sociocultural factors such as poverty, social inequality, and inadequate social support. The implications of this complexity are explored in terms of psychological assessment and the frequent need for multitarget, multimodal treatment approaches.     

The Psychosocial Inventory of Ego Strengths: Development and Validation of a New Eriksonian Measure

An underexamined component of Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory is the concept of ego strengths. The eight ego strengths are present throughout the life span, but each have their ascendance in conjunction with successful psychosocial stage resolutions. Upon careful analysis of Erikson's writings, the Psychosocial Inventory of Ego Strengths (PIES) was developed to assess this component of psychosocial theory. The measure was scrutinized by several Eriksonian scholars for its face and content validity. Then, two studies were conducted among college samples in the United States and Canada. Evidence for internal consistency was shown for the eight ego strengths, as well as on overall score. Convergent validity was shown between the PIES and assessments of identity achievement, self-esteem, purpose in life, internal locus of control, and sex roles. Discriminant validity was observed in negative correlations between the ego strengths and hopelessness, identity diffusion, identity moratorium, and personal distress. Suggestions for future research utilizing this measure are given.     

Nonincremental Policy Change: Lessons from Michigan's Medicaid Managed Care Initiative

Studies of policy implementation have focused primarily on incremental policy change, yet policy change is sometimes implemented quickly and comprehensively. Such is the case with Michigan's recent implementation of a statewide Medicaid managed care initiative. This article analyzes Michigan's quick implementation and highlights the importance of political support, organizational change, and a supportive policy and administrative environment in affecting successful implementation. It also notes the price paid for quick implementation—namely, stakeholder dissatisfaction, mistakes, and lack of public involvement.     

Reversing Directions: A Ranking and Comparison of Key U.S. Intergovernmental Events, 1960-1980 and 1980-1995

Based on surveys of scholars and practitioners, this articleranks and evaluates the significance of intergovernmental eventsand trends of I980 to I995, and also compares these with similarrankings for 1960 to 1980. The most important events of the1980 to 1995 period were found to be those that generally diminished,or potentially may diminish, the role of the federal governmentin intergovernmental affairs. It was also found that the eventsand trends which scholars rated highly for 1960 to 1980 generallyremained the top events and trends of that period as viewedby current scholars. It is concluded that events and trendsthat seem important and influential at this point in lime probablywill remain comparatively significant, even when evaluated inthe context of the passage of time.     

The State of American Federalism, 1995-1996

Federalism was a major political issue in 1995 and 1996 withpresidential candidates, congressional leaders, governors, andthe courts weighing in with proposals to shift responsibilityfrom Washington to states and localities. There was more talkthan action, but as the second session of the 104th Congresswound down in the late summer, a major proposal to block grantthe 61-year old Aid to Families with Dependent Children programwas enacted. This enactment allowed both Democrats and Republicansto take political credit, and gave major responsibilities tothe states to implement the new approach to a former entitlementprogram. Five themes characterized the year: (1) federalismwas once again a salient issue; (2) deficit reduction and devolutionwere bound together; (3) the U.S. Supreme Court continued toreexamine and possibly redefine the legal parameters of federalism;(4) state officials became more visible political actors inWashington, D. C.; and (5) states provided key policy and managementleadership.     

The effects of observing conjugal violence on children: A review and analysis of research methodology

This review specifically addresses the effects on children of observing conjugal violence. A research of six major computer databases revealed 1764 references on family violence of which 29 articles dealt directly with the effects on children. These articles were judged by independent raters using a 56-item rating system designed to analyze methodological and assessment issues of empirical investigations. This analysis summarized these research efforts and indicated the need for more careful consideration of definitional, subject variable, familial stress, and reactive vs long-term effect issues. Additionally, specific proposals for future research were outlined; suggestions related to these issues, and some new directions for investigation were provided.