Cognitive Abilities,Social Adaptation,and Externalizing Behavior Problems in Childhood and Adolescence: Specific Cascade Effects Across Development

Children’s and adolescents’ cognitive abilities, social adaptation, and externalizing behaviors are broadly associated with each other at the bivariate level; however, the direction, ordering, and uniqueness of these associations have yet to be identified. Developmental cascade models are particularly well-suited to (1) discern unique pathways among psychological domains and (2) model stability in and covariation among constructs, allowing for conservative tests of longitudinal associations. The current study aimed to identify specific cascade effects among children’s cognitive abilities, social adaptation, and externalizing behaviors, beginning in preschool and extending through adolescence. Children (46.2?% female) and mothers (N?=?351 families) provided data when children were 4, 10, and 14 years old. Cascade effects highlighted significant stability in these domains. Unique longitudinal associations were identified between (1) age-10 cognitive abilities and age-14 social adaptation, (2) age-4 social adaptation and age-10 externalizing behavior, and (3) age-10 externalizing behavior and age-14 social adaptation. These findings suggest that children’s social adaptation in preschool and externalizing behavior in middle childhood may be ideal intervention targets to enhance adolescent well-being.     

More Than Just Keeping Busy: The Protective Effects of Organized Activity Participation on Violence and Substance Use Among Urban Youth

Violence and substance use disproportionately affect African American youth in urban, disadvantaged communities. Expanding positive peer and adult connections is a mechanism by which organized activity participation may reduce risk of negative outcomes. We assessed if organized activity participation decreases the likelihood of later negative outcomes through expanding positive social connections using a parallel mediation model (Wave 1: N?=?681; 50% female; M_age?=?14.86 years; SD?=?0.65). We found indirect effects from participation to cigarette use (b?=??0.04, 95% CI: ?0.07, ?0.01) and violent behavior (b?=??0.04; 95% CI: ?0.07, ?0.01) through positive peer connections. We did not find indirect effects through positive adult connections. This may be because of the notable influence of peers on negative outcomes during adolescence. Organized activities can help youth expand positive peer connections, which, in turn, reduces risk of later negative outcomes. Implications for prevention are discussed.     

Stressors in Multiple Life-Domains and the Risk for Externalizing and Internalizing Behaviors Among African Americans During Emerging Adulthood

Behavioral and mental health outcomes have been associated with experiencing high levels of stress. Yet, little is known about the link between the nature of stressors, their accumulation over time, and the risk for externalizing and internalizing outcomes. Compared to the general population, African Americans are exposed to a disproportionate number of stressors beginning earlier in life. Incorporating Agnew’s General Strain Theory into the study of stress, this study examined whether different kinds of stressors are equally salient in the risk for violent behaviors and depressive symptoms among African Americans transitioning into young adulthood. It further examined the effects of the accumulation of stressors in different life domains and their effect on risks. This study utilized data from an African American subsample of an ongoing longitudinal study that followed 604 adolescents (53?% females) from 9th grade into adulthood. Multilevel growth curve models were used to examine how changes in stressors across multiple life domains related to violent behaviors and depressive symptoms. We found that continued exposure to perceived daily stress and racial discrimination stress increased the risk for violent behaviors during young adulthood, and exhibited a nonlinear relationship between the accumulation of stressors and risk for violence. Moreover, we found that exposure to perceived daily stress, financial stress, neighborhood stress, and racial discrimination stress increased the risk of depressive symptoms and led to a linear relationship between the accumulation of stressors and risk for depressive symptoms. Findings suggest identifiable stressors that can persist over time to influence risks at young adulthood.     

The Mills report,the Manley subsidy proposals,and the business of major‐league sport

Abstract: This article examines the debates over subsidies to professional sports teams that have been the focus of much attention and passion in Canada over the past several years, debates that led to the report by Dennis Mills,Sport in Canada: Everybody's Business, and to John Manley's ill‐fated proposals to offer subsidies to Canadian professional sports operators. The article reviews the arguments put forward by the sports industry: that major‐league hockey and baseball teams make substantial economic contributions, both directly and indirectly, to the cities in which they are located and that Canadian teams, especially those based in smaller cities, need substantial reductions in their public costs (taxes and/or rents) in order to “level the playing field” with their US. competitors. The authors argue that the commissioned studies on which these claims are based systematically overstate the economic impacts of professional sports and are not supported by independent research. The authors also argue that the difficulties facing Canada's “small market” teams are not primarily the result of higher taxes; rather, they follow from changes in the sports industry over the last decade (notably, much higher player salaries). This means that in order to remain competitive, teams must be able to generate far greater revenues than were needed only a decade ago. When one examines the new economy of professional hockey, in particular, with its heavy reliance on local television and advertising revenues and on the purchase of luxury seating by the local corporate sector, it is hard to avoid concluding that even with public subsidies teams based in provincial Canadian cities may no longer be able to compete in the major leagues. Finally, the authors consider the cultural argument that nhl hockey is a Canadian tradition and warrants support on “heritage,” as opposed to economic, grounds. However, the authors conclude that both professional sports and Canada have changed so much in recent decades that commercial sport is not an appropriate candidate for public subsidy. Sommaire: Dans cet article, on examine la question des subventions aux équipes de sports professionnels qui a fait l'objet d'un vif débat au Canada au cours de ces dern‐ières années. Ce débat avait entraîné le rapport de Dennis Mills,Sport in Canada: Everybody's Business, et les propositions soumises ans succès par John Manley pour offrir des subventions aux exploitants de sports professionnels au Canada. On y présente les arguments du secteur des sports: les équipes de hockey et de baseball des ligues majeures font un apport économique direct et indirect considérable aux villes oú elles se trouvent, et les équipes canadiennes, surtout celles basées dans des villes plus petites, ont besoin d'une réduction substantielle de leurs coûts publics (impôts et/ou loyers) afin d'égaliser le terrain de jeu par rapport à leurs concurrents américains. Selon les auteurs, les études commanditées qui justifient ces prétentions exagèrent systématiquement les retombées économiques des sports professionnels et elles ne sont pas appuyées par des recherche indépendeants. Par ailleurs, les difficultées auxquelles font face les équipes de petit marché au Canada ne découlent pas d'une forte impositoin mais plutôt de l'évolution survenue dans l'industrie du sport au cows de cette dernière décennie (notamment, la forte hausse du salaire des joueurs). Pour rester concurrentielles, les équipes doivent recueillir un revenue très supérieur à celui d'il y a dix ans. Lorsqu'on examine la nouvelle économie du hockey professionnel en particulier, fortement tributaire du revenue prodigué par la télévision et la publicité locales et de l'achat de siges au prix fort par les entreprises de la localité, il est difficile d'éviter la conclusion que, même avec des subventions publiques, les équipes basées dans des villes provinciales au Canada auront du mal à survivre dans les lques majeures. Enfin, les auteurs examinent l'argument culturel voulant que le hockey de la lnh soit une tradition canadienne qui mérite d'être appuyée à titre patrimonial plutôt qu'économique. Leur conclusion: les sports professionnels et le pays lui‐même ont tellement évolué ces dernières décennies que le sport commercial n'est pas un candidat valable pour des subventions publiques.     

Parental and Peer Factors Associated with Body Image Discrepancy among Fifth-Grade Boys and Girls

Many young adolescents are dissatisfied with their body due to a discrepancy between their ideal and actual body size, which can lead to weight cycling, eating disorders, depression, and obesity. The current study examined the associations of parental and peer factors with fifth-graders’ body image discrepancy, physical self-worth as a mediator between parental and peer factors and body image discrepancy, and how these associations vary by child’s sex. Body image discrepancy was defined as the difference between young adolescents’ self-perceived body size and the size they believe a person their age should be. Data for this study came from Healthy Passages, which surveyed 5,147 fifth graders (51 % females; 34 % African American, 35 % Latino, 24 % White, and 6 % other) and their primary caregivers from the United States. Path analyses were conducted separately for boys and girls. The findings for boys suggest father nurturance and getting along with peers are related negatively to body image discrepancy; however, for girls, fear of negative evaluation by peers is related positively to body image discrepancy. For both boys and girls, getting along with peers and fear of negative evaluation by peers are related directly to physical self-worth. In addition, mother nurturance is related positively to physical self-worth for girls, and father nurturance is related positively to physical self-worth for boys. In turn, physical self-worth, for both boys and girls, is related negatively to body image discrepancy. The findings highlight the potential of parental and peer factors to reduce fifth graders’ body image discrepancy.     

Online Network Influences on Emerging Adults’ Alcohol and Drug Use

Researchers have reported that network characteristics are associated with substance use behavior. Considering that social interactions within online networks are increasingly common, we examined the relationship between online network characteristics and substance use in a sample of emerging adults (ages 18–24) from across the United States (N = 2,153; M = 21 years old; 47 % female; 70 % White). We used regression analyses to examine the relationship between online ego network characteristics (i.e., characteristics of individuals directly related to the focal participant plus the relationships shared among individuals within the online network) and alcohol use and substance use, respectively. Alcohol use was associated with network density (i.e., interconnectedness between individuals in a network), total number of peer ties, and a greater proportion of emotionally close ties. In sex-stratified models, density was related to alcohol use for males but not females. Drug use was associated with an increased number of peer ties, and the increased proportion of network members’ discussion and acceptance of drug use, respectively. We also found that online network density and total numbers of ties were associated with more personal drug use for males but not females. Conversely, we noted that social norms were related to increased drug use and this relationship was stronger for females than males. We discuss the implications of our findings for substance use and online network research.     

Trajectories of Organized Activity Participation Among Urban Adolescents: An Analysis of Predisposing Factors

Organized activity participation provides important opportunities for adolescents to develop assets and resources related to positive youth development. Predisposing factors, in addition to sociodemographics and self-selection factors, may influence how youth participate over time. In this study, we used growth mixture modeling with longitudinal data from African American adolescents attending urban high schools in Flint, MI to identify subgroups of participation trajectories (Wave 1 N = 681, mean age at Wave 1 = 14.86 years, 51 % female). We measured activity participation using psychological and behavioral engagement across multiple contexts over the 4 years of high school. We examined how predisposing risk and promotive factors were related to these trajectories, accounting for sociodemographic and self-selection factors. The results indicated three participation trajectories: a low group decreasing over time (74 %), a moderate, consistent participation group (21 %) and a moderate, increasing group (5 %). More substance use was associated with lower odds of being in the moderate/consistent versus low/decreasing participation group. More parental support was associated with lower odds of being in the moderate/increasing versus the moderate/consistent group. Our results suggest that addressing predisposing factors such as substance use may help facilitate participation over time.     

Children and Parents as Informants of Emotional and Behavioural Problems Predicting Female and Male Adolescent Risk Behaviour: A Longitudinal Cross-Informant Study

This study examines whether health risk behaviour in adolescence can be predicted by self- and by parental reports of psychopathology (externalizing and internalizing symptoms) assessed two and four years earlier. A total sample of 366 fourth graders participated in a longitudinal study with measurements taken in grades 4, 6, and 8. In grades 4 and 6 the children completed the Youth Self Report (YSR) while their parents completed the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL). In grade 8, the children reported their risk behaviour (smoking, sexual activity, dietary behaviour and suicidal tendencies). Results reveal that cross-informant correlations for both symptom-scales are low to medium and tend to increase slightly from grade 4 through 8. Children reported higher symptom-levels and changes over time than their parents. The predictability of risk behaviour in adolescence by reported psychopathology in grade 6 exceeds the predictability in grade 4. Results indicate that the predictability of risk behaviour by self-reports versus parental reports of psychopathology depends on the specific kind of health risk behaviour and the child’s gender.

The Stability of Political Attitudes and Behaviors across Adolescence and Early Adulthood: A Comparison of Survey Data on Adolescents and Young Adults in Eight Countries

The persistence of adolescents’ political attitudes and behaviors into adulthood is a perennial concern in research on developmental psychology. While some authors claim that adolescents’ attitudinal patterns will remain relatively stable throughout the life cycle, others argue that the answers of adolescents in political surveys have but a limited predictive value for their future attitudes and behaviors. In this article, we tackle this question on an aggregate level, by comparing survey data for 14, 18 and 18 to 30 year old respondents from eight European countries (n = resp. 22,620; 20,142 and 2800). We examine political trust, attitudes toward immigrants’ rights and voting behavior. The analysis suggests that country patterns with regard to political trust and attitudes toward immigrant rights are already well established by the age of 14. We find less indications for stability in the relation between intention to vote (for 14 and 18 years olds) and actual voting behavior (for young adults). The latent structure of the political trust scale was found to be equivalent for the three age groups we investigated. We close by offering some suggestions on why attitudinal stability seems stronger than behavioral stability.