Population Heterogeneity and State Dependence: State of the Evidence and Directions for Future Research

Criminological research has consistently uncovered a positive correlationbetween past and current criminal behavior. Continuity in offending overtime can be attributed to at least two processes—populationheterogeneity and state dependence. A population heterogeneity processattributes stability in offending over time to differences in ananti-social characteristic (self-control, impulsivity, psychopathicpersonality) across persons that is established early in life andtime-stable thereafter. An implication of a population heterogeneityexplanation for continuity in offending over time is that the anti-socialcharacteristic is likely to have reverberations throughout life, takingmany manifestations later in life (unemployment, drug addiction, maritalinstability). Any observed correlation between these later life events andcriminality, therefore, is spurious rather than causal, due to the factthat they are all the effects of a common cause. A state dependenceexplanation, in contrast, attributes observed stability in criminaloffending to a process of contagion. That is, criminal behavior has agenuine causal effect on subsequent criminality by eroding constraintsand strengthening incentives to crime. The implication of a statedependence process is that criminal conduct may be influenced by laterlife events. In this paper, we draw a connection between populationheterogeneity and state dependence processes and extant criminologicaltheory. We also review the literature that has investigated theplausibility of these two processes. Finally, concluding that weknow very little about them we make recommendations for future researchon population heterogeneity and state dependence.     

The great tradition: The spread of diplomacy in the ancient world

Diplomacy as we understand it to the present day — a sophisticated system for handling affairs of state and negotiating treaties, based on accredited envoys working within a framework of international law and protocol - emerged in the third millennium BCE in the ancient Near East at the same time as the development of writing and urban culture. Transmitted by the great cuneiform civilizations of Babylon and Assyria to Achaemenid Persia and classical Greece and Rome, the heritage of diplomacy continued to flourish in Byzantium, Rome, and Venice. The Renaissance provided the conditions for the spread of a tradition that had existed in many essential aspects for millennia.     

The Teaching of Denture Marking Methods in Dental Schools in the United Kingdom and the United States*,†

Abstract: Forensic organizations worldwide have recommended that dental prostheses should be marked with, at a minimum, the patient’s name and preferably with further unique identifiers such as a social security number. The current study aimed to assess the denture marking practice of dental schools within the United States and the United Kingdom. A questionnaire‐based survey was employed to gain both quantitative and qualitative data on the methods, practices, and ethos behind denture marking in 14 U.K. and 32 U.S. dental schools. One hundred percent of U.K. and 87.5% of U.S. schools returned surveys and the results suggest that, for dental schools where there is no legal or legislative need for denture marking, the practice is inconsistently taught and appears to be reliant on internal forces within the school to increase awareness. Among those schools practicing marking, only 18% employ a technique likely to withstand common postmortem assaults; this is a concern.     

Book Reviews

Book reviewed in this article: Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain by Peter Grose. Undermining the Kremlin: America's Strategy to Subvert the Soviet Bloc, 1947–1956 by Gregory Mitrovich.     

Drug intelligence based on MDMA tablets data: 2. Physical characteristics profiling

One of the tasks of the European project entitled “Collaborative Harmonisation of Methods for Profiling of Amphetamine Type Stimulants” (CHAMP) funded by the sixth framework programme of the European Commission was to develop a harmonised methodology for MDMA profiling and the creation of a common database in a drug intelligence perspective. Part I was dedicated to the analysis of organic impurities formed during synthesis in order to investigate traffic tendencies and highlight potential links between samples, whereas this part focuses on physical characteristics of the MDMA tablets. Diameter, thickness, weight and score were demonstrated to be reliable and relevant features in this drug intelligence perspective. Distributions of samples coming from the same post-tabletting batch (post-TB) and samples coming from different post-TB were very well discriminated by using the squared Euclidean or the Manhattan distance on standardised data. Our findings demonstrated the possibility to discriminate between MDMA samples issued from different post-TB and to find out links between samples coming from a same post-TB. Furthermore, the hypothesis that most of the MDMA samples found on the international market come from the same countries was supported.     

Extraction of alternative fuels from fire debris samples*

Alternative fuels, specifically biodiesel, biodiesel blends, and E85 fuel, have been gaining a market share over the past few years. With the emergence of these fuels, fire debris analysts should be able to recognize their characteristics since these fuels may be encountered in casework. In this study, pure biodiesel (B100) and a 20% blend of pure biodiesel with petroleum diesel (B20) are examined as liquids and are extracted from debris samples using both passive headspace concentration and solvent extraction. Typical fire debris instrumental conditions are used to analyze these samples. Components of B100 and B20 may be observed in debris samples extracted using the passive headspace concentration method, but the chromatographic patterns are different from the pure liquid samples. When solvent extraction is used as a secondary extraction method on debris samples, the resulting patterns are consistent with the pure liquids of B100 and B20. E85 fuel, a blend of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline, can be extracted using a typical fire debris extraction technique but requires slight modifications to typical fire debris instrumental conditions. E85 is shown at various stages of evaporation to demonstrate the resiliency of the ethanol. Additionally, samples of E85 were placed on carpet, burned and extinguished to demonstrate the effects of the suppression medium on the retention of ethanol.     

That Was Then, This Is Now, What About Tomorrow? Future Directions in State Crime Studies

Research and theorizing on state crime has come to play an important role in the fields of criminology and criminal justice for understanding the worst of crimes: those of powerful state agencies and agents. Since William Chambliss’ (1989) ASC presidential address, scholars of state crime have made advances in theoretical modeling and analyzing core enactment and etiological factors of crimes of the state (e.g., Barak 1991; Friedrichs 1998; Grabosky 1989; Kauzlarich and Kramer 1998; Kramer and Michalowski 2005; Kramer et al. 2005; Michalowski and Kramer 2006; Mullins and Rothe 2008a, b; Pearce 1976; Ross 1995, 2000; Rothe 2009; Rothe and Mullins 2006, 2008). Nonetheless, the study of state crime still has a long way to go before it ever reaches the magnitude or legitimacy afforded to the study of traditional street crime. It is with this in mind that several leading scholars of state criminality have come together and reevaluated the state of state crime and the ways in which the field must move forward. This kind of inventory, where scholars examine the past, present and future of the field, is not without precedent. For example, almost a decade ago (Ross et al. 1999) explored the difficulty of conducting state crime research and made a series of recommendations on how it could be improved. Nearly 7 years later (Rothe and Friedrichs 2006) re-evaluated the state of state crime and called for more attention to those beyond US crimes of the state and include crimes of globalization and also international controls such as the International Criminal Court (Friedrichs and Friedrichs 2007; Rothe and Mullins 2006; Rothe et al. 2006, 2008). Since that time, there has been substantial movement by scholars of state crime in these other areas, yet, as we note, there still remains key issues that need to be addressed and overcome: it is with this that we again revisit the field of state crime. We wish to thank all of those that contributed to our discussions and thoughts during the American Society of Criminology Roundtable on State Crime I and II, November 2007.

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Biomechanical Factors in Human Dermal Bitemarks in a Cadaver Model*

Abstract: In bitemark analysis, the forensic odontologist must consider how the biomechanical properties of the skin contribute to distortion of the bitemark. In addition, one must consider how the bitemark can be distorted by postural movement of the victim after the bite has occurred. A fundamental review of the architecture and biomechanical properties of the dermis is described and evaluated through bites made on cadavers. In order to assess distortion, 23 bites from a single characterized dentition were made on un‐embalmed cadaver skin. Bite indentations were photographed. Following various body manipulations they were re‐photographed in different positions. Hollow volume overlays of the biting dentition were constructed, and metric analysis of the dentition and all bitemarks was completed. The overall intercanine, mesial to distal, and angle of rotation distortion was calculated. Of the 23 bites made, none were measurably identical, and in some cases, dramatic distortion was noted.     

Integration of Pre-Employment Polygraph Screening into the Police Selection Process

The authors provide a polygraph primer for police psychologists involved in law enforcement personnel selection. Law-enforcement pre-employment polygraph examinations are a decision-support tool intended to add incremental validity to the personnel selection process. Problems stemming from the use of the polygraph may be related to misunderstanding of the polygraph test and to field practices surrounding the use of polygraphy in the police selection process. Potential problems can result from ineffective selection of test issues, poorly constructed test questions and misguided policies surrounding the use of the polygraph. The authors review the history of polygraph screening, research, and field practices, and suggest that using polygraph results alone to disqualify a candidate from employment is a misguided field practice. Suggestions are offered for maximizing the decision-support value of the polygraph. Polygraph examination targets are discussed, with emphasis on selecting actuarially derived predictors associated with increased success in law enforcement training and job performance. The authors provide recommendations for field practice, and propose that police psychologists may be most suited to effectively integrate the polygraph results and information into the hiring recommendation process.