比较法学的历史

波洛克(Sir Frederick Pollock,1845-1937)是19世纪著名的英国法学家。他曾就学于剑桥,亦曾在林肯律师会馆学习,获得律师资格。因之波洛克的学术视野,始终不曾局限于英国本土。他毕生的学术追求,亦体现出纵横两方面的贯通感。波洛克之学术贡献,首推其与梅特兰合著之《爱德华一世之前的英国法律史》(The History of English Law before the Time of Edward)。与一般的英国法制史多从1066年写起的谋篇方法不同,此书对罗马法有深入而广泛的论述。其内容还涉及蛮族与罗马法的关系、东罗马帝国时代的立法和教会法的产生,乃至中世纪罗马法的复兴。亦即对于英国法中的罗马法因素,二子皆高度重视之。此种体认,若无长时段大视野的贯通,颇难达致。波洛克的另外一篇论文《自然法史》,从亚里士多德和斯多亚学派写起,对自然法观念的发展及其对法律制度的影响作了系统的总结和阐述。对于研究自然法这一在西方法学史和法制史上影响深远的法学流派而言,是非常重要的参考资料。波洛克以史家之视野治法学,1883年入牛津接亨利·梅因的法理学教授席位。波洛克同时精通拉丁语、希腊语、法语和德语,他是对当时法学发展产生巨大影响的少数几位法学家之一。波洛克学术活动的黄金时期,正是比较法学在英国逐渐获得发展的时期。1895年,英国成立了比较立法学会。1900年,英国派遣波洛克参加了在巴黎召开的第一届世界比较法大会,他是这次会议上惟一的一名英美法系的代表。1903年,波洛克从牛津退职。这篇《比较法学的历史》是波洛克的退职演讲。但是我们不妨把它看做是波洛克治比较法学的心得所在。因此它既是一篇比较法学的简略总论,也是鼓励后来者在英国的比较法学界勇猛精进,大有所为的号令宣言。而不可避免地,它也是对英国法律史学家梅因的致敬之词。波洛克首先揭示了在法学研究中比较研究和历史研究之间的关系。在波洛克看来,这两者之间是相互为用、密切联系的。恰如德国著名比较法学家K.茨威格特和H.科茨所强调的那样:"一切法律史的研究都表明是运用比较法方法的一种作业,……我们记得,现代比较法的奠基者们主要是重要的法律史家。如果缺乏历史感,甚至现代比较法学者都不能够理解外国的解决办法。"〔1〕波洛克所以在此篇演讲中特重梅因,而对著名英国法学家布莱克斯通采取近乎严苛的"责备贤者"的态度,与波洛克对比较研究和历史研究之间关系的深刻体悟,有直接关系。隐然贯穿全篇的,是波洛克对比较法学发展的历史动力和理论基础的体察。波洛克意识到,法律的多样性是比较法存在的前提条件,并且无论怎样,为改进立法之故而研习国外之法律,始终是推动比较法发展的力量。但是,在波洛克看来,比较法学有其超乎功利主义目的之上的理论价值。比较法的思想基础,起初是自然法学,即探寻普世法的原则。波洛克以为,此种研究,意义不甚明显,乃至在其演讲中,一笔带过。波洛克真正命意所在,是他意识到实证主义和经验主义,才是比较法学最佳的培养基。而反观欧洲大陆流行的理性主义法哲学,由于其倚重先验方法,势不能对比较法学的发展起到促进作用。先验的理性主义不退潮,比较法学必不能大张其道。在这一点上,大木雅夫的观察不可谓不深刻:"相对于比较法发展的这种不利情况,人们自然而然地会把英国看做比较法思想的先驱之地。与欧洲大陆不同,英国既有着独立的法律传统,又是经验主义的故乡。"〔2〕由此我们不难解释为什么比较法于18世纪后方能兴起,为什么比较法在英国获得了相当的繁荣。从这个意义上讲,不是英国选择了比较法,而是比较法选择了英国。在这一主线指导之下,波洛克把历史上那些对比较法发展起到重要作用的思想巨擘的名字一一列出,略述其学术要旨。也把那些对比较法发展起到推动作用的历史事件,一并提及。此篇之所以名之曰《比较法学的历史》,概出于此。如果希望从中找到比较法发展的编年史,读者必将失望。但是如果注意到作者所察觉到的这一思想史的基本脉络,就不难理解,作者对历史资料,何以作如此大幅度的重新剪裁,甚至为突出主旨不惜令其支离破碎。尽管比较法学有所谓宏观比较和微观比较之说,但是毋庸置疑的是,若无一种整体的器识,治比较法学之境界,必非常有限。就比较法学而言,波洛克的可贵可重之处,即在于此。这篇演讲的风格,与其说是学术的,不如说是诗性的。波洛克运用了大量的典故和隐喻,高推比较法学在人类知识领域的位置,并号召后来者能由此出发,发扬光大之。学者与其从事的研究之间,必有一种近乎宗教使命似的感应交通,方可期其为大家。于此一广为流布之观点,余初持保留态度。译毕此文,于今信夫!     

The ‘Code of Silence’: Are Self‐Report Surveys a Viable Means for Studying Police Misconducts?

Police misconducts have very rarely been studied by the self‐report method because it is assumed that the ‘code of silence’ is too hard to break even in an anonymous survey research situation. In this study a self‐report method was carried out in a police unit in Finland. Respondents were shown a list of 16 possible conducts. They were asked whether they knew a police officer who had been engaged in misconduct mentioned in the list or whether they themselves had engaged in one or more of the misconducts mentioned in the list. The analysis results indicated that, in an anonymous self‐report survey context, police officers are clearly willing to report on service misconducts, both their own and those of their fellow officers. Thus, the assumed ‘code of silence’ does not seem as strong as the literature suggests.     

A Really Hard Case: Iranian Space Ambitions and the Prospects for U.S. Engagement

On 27 October 2005, the first Iranian satellite—Sinah-1—was launched. The satellite failed soon after launch, but it represented a significant technological step by the Islamic Republic, and was also a statement of intent on behalf of Iranian space ambitions. Current and projected Iranian space capabilities are highly dependent upon foreign technologies and expertise, but the Iranian nuclear and ballistic missile programmes offer a glimpse of how Iran's space programme may yet develop. This essay provides an overview of Iranian space capabilities, and places it within contemporary Iranian domestic and strategic contexts. It also offers an insight into how Iran's space programme is organized, and lastly, offers a view on how best the United States might influence Iran's space programme.     

An exploratory study of social class and energy issues

This paper analyzes the relationship between a Marxian class measure based upon individuals' relations to the means of production and three types of survey items dealing with energy and conservation issues; knowledge items, attitude items, and items concerned with behavioral change. We also compare the relationship between three commonly used measures of socioeconomic status (SES) (family income, personal income, and education) and these same items regarding energy and conservation. In this manner we attempt to determine whether a particular Marxian class measure can provide insights in this issue area which are not provided by the traditional measures of SES. Contrary to previous research, our major finding is that the three traditionally accepted indicators of SES are related to many more energy and conservation items than is our measure of Marxian class.The authors are engaged in a series of collaborative articles. The order in which our names appear in these works is rotated.     

Social disadvantage, mental illness and predictors of legal involvement

The following study evaluates the complex association between legal involvement and mental illness. It describes a population of consumers of community mental health programs, comparing those with legal involvement to those without legal involvement, on a number of demographic, clinical and social indicators. It is a secondary analysis of data collected in studies making up the Community Mental Health Evaluation Initiative (CMHEI) in the province of Ontario, Canada. Legal involvement was a significant issue among community mental health program consumers; about one in five consumers had at least some contact with the legal system in the preceding nine months. Legally involved consumers were more likely to be in receipt of social assistance and be unstably housed than those legally uninvolved. However, there were no significant differences between legally involved and uninvolved consumers with respect to severity of symptomatology, current medication use or number of hospitalization days in the past 9 months. A predictive model compared the differential impact of clinical and social determinants upon legal involvement. Analyses failed to uncover a significant relationship between severity of psychiatric symptomatology and legal involvement. Significant predictors of legal involvement included gender, race, drug use as well as housing instability, and receipt of social assistance. Legal involvement was attributable to factors other than the severity of mental illness; these results challenge assumptions that the most symptomatically severe consumers are most at risk of legal involvement. Accordingly, the rate of legal involvement in a sample of community mental health program users must be considered in a broad context, with particular emphasis on social disadvantage.