Neoclassical Difficulties: Tort Deterrence for Latent Injuries*

Economists often claim that the tort system leads firms to provide consumers and workers with the socially optimal level of safety. Moreover, in the case of work-related hazards, employers are alleged to have another source of incentives to take precautions. If wages are sensitive to job-related risks, employers should spend money to reduce such risks when, by doing so, they can save more in wage costs than the costs of the precautions taken. Whatever their merits in other settings, in the case of latent injuries such as workplace exposure to asbestos neither tort nor market are likely to provide an optimal level of safety; indeed, they have failed to do so in the examples we discuss. We find that the introduction of a long delay between the exposure to a hazard and the onset of symptoms introduces a variety of empirical complications that overwhelm the assumptions on which the neoclassical model rests. Our conclusion is thus that comparisons between tort and alternative systems of deterrence/compensation should start from an empirical assessment of how the tort system actually works (and doesn't work), rather than beginning with misleading theoretical claims about the system's optimality.     

Unemployment and the dynamics of offender populations

This paper models the increase in the participation rate of criminal behavior as either the initiation rate or the career length of criminals changes in response to increases in unemployment. Even with large instantaneous increases in unemployment, the models show a very slow increase in the criminal participation rate, giving a possible explanation of the failure of many studies to demonstrate a link between unemployment and crime levels.     

The paraphilias and Depo-Provera: some medical, ethical and legal considerations

Paraphilic disorders are Axis I psychiatric afflictions. They are not acquired by volitional decision, but are manifested by the association of erotic arousal with unacceptable behavior or stimulae (e.g., children). Because paraphilic behavior occurs in the service of a biological drive, use of medication to suppress sexual appetite may constitute an adjunct in treatment. Medroxyprogesterone can be used to decrease unacceptable erotic urges and fantasies, with the intent of increasing self-control. Such treatment should not be forced upon an unwilling person. Conversely, persons should not be denied access to treatment by laws which deter seeking help, or because of incarceration, parole, or probation.     

Economic security, 1935-85

The economic well-being of both working and retired persons has improved significantly since the Social Security Act was passed in 1935. More people are employed now than at any time since then, despite declining employment among the aged and more years of school attendance among the young. The ratio of non-workers to workers--a broad measure of dependency--is lower now than at any time since the 1930's. Social security has grown and matured to become a strong foundation of retirement income, and other work-related employee benefits have grown in tandem with social security. Employer contributions for social insurance and related employee benefits have grown from being about a 1-percent supplement to aggregate wages and salaries in 1929 to nearly 20 percent today. Social security and Medicare account for just over a fourth of employer contributions, while other public and private retirement systems represent just over another fourth. The balance of benefits for active workers includes group health and life insurance, unemployment insurance, workers' compensation, temporary disability insurance, and related benefits. Pay for holidays, vacations, and sick leave is estimated to have increased from less than 1 percent of aggregate pay in 1929 to about 10 percent today. The improved economic status of the aged has been documented by a series of surveys beginning in 1941-42 and carried out from time to time until 1972 and biennially since 1976. The earlier surveys were supplemented with estimates from record data and tables from the Bureau of the Census. The income of the aged as a whole has grown by about 75 percent over the past 2 decades after taking inflation into account. The income of the aged as a whole grew faster than that of the nonaged in the 1970's and early 1980's when real social security benefits increased faster than inflation and wages lagged behind it. New beneficiaries in 1982 were in better health and were more likely to retire because they wanted to than was true of their counterparts in the early 1940's. Not only have benefits continued to be the main component of income of the aged as total incomes have grown, but also benefits have become much larger in relation to average earnings than used to be the case. Retired workers are much more likely now than in the early 1940's to have other pensions or income from assets to supplement benefits.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Death of a twin--infanticide or intrauterine fetal death?

The authors report an intrauterine death in a twin pregnancy. Due to external circumstances, infanticide was initially suspected. Forensic examination of fetus and placenta, however, revealed a placental cause for the death of the twin. The macerated fetus, which had been retained for at least one week, was expelled, apparently unnoticed, shortly before the live birth of the hypotrophic second twin. The question of the possibility of unnoticed fetus expulsion was discussed.     

Determination of sex with a discriminant analysis of new pelvic bone measurements: Part II

The pelves of 100 white skeletons were measured on both sides for the following: (1) length from the superiormost aspect of the pubic symphysis to the nearest rim of the acetabulum (PS-A), (2) length from the highest point of the pubic tubercle to the nearest rim of the acetabulum (PT-A), (3) acetabular diameter (AD), (4) the vertical distance from the anterior aspect of the ischial tuberosity to the farthest rim of the acetabulum (IT-A), and (5) greatest femur head diameter. From these, three indices were derived: AD/PS-A (acetabulum/pubis index), AD/PT-A (acetabular diameter/pubic tubercle-acetabular rim index), and IT-A/PS-A (ischium-acetabulum height/pubic symphysis-acetabular rim index). The left AD/PS-A ratio and left IT-A height proved statistically to be of greatest discriminating value. Using these two variables, a discriminant function was derived which correctly separated 98% of our sample. The acetabulum/pubis ratio alone correctly assigned 95%. With either the discriminant function analysis of two variables or the acetabulum/pubis index as a single predictor, 97% of our sample of known sex was correctly identified if all specimens that fell within a doubtful or overlapping range of values were sorted by femur head diameter.     

ASSESSING AGE AND GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PERCEIVED RISK AND FEAR OF CRIME*

Much of the research on fear of crime indicates that women and older persons are highly afraid of crime. These findings, especially older persons' fear of crime, are widely communicated in the scientific and popular media. This study examines age and gender differences in perceived risk and fear of crime. The data are from telephone interviews of 320 randomly selected residents in a southeastern metropolitan area of the United States. The relationships of age and gender to fear of crime are compared using a National Crime Survey (NCS) measure of fear of crime and 11 alternative indicators of fear of specific offenses. Women reported signifcantly greater perceived risk and fear of crime than men regardless of how fear of crime was measured and older adults reported the greatest fear of crime when the NCS measure was used. but not when the alternative individual measures of fear of crime were used. A LISREL model with latent constructs for fear of personal crime and fear of property crime also indicates that older adults do not have higher levels of fear of crime. In short, the extent of fear in the everyday lives of most older persons has been overestimated in many previous studies because of measurement problems.     

Cocaine-induced psychosis and sudden death in recreational cocaine users

Fatal cocaine intoxication presenting as an excited delirium is described in seven recreational cocaine users. Symptoms began with the acute onset of an intense paranoia, followed by bizarre and violent behavior necessitating forcible restraint. The symptoms were frequently accompanied by unexpected strength and hyperthermia. Fatal respiratory collapse occurred suddenly and without warning, generally within a few minutes to an hour after the victim was restrained. Five of the seven died while in police custody. Blood concentration of cocaine averaged 0.6 mg/L, about ten times lower than that seen in fatal cocaine overdoses. Police, rescue personnel, and emergency room physicians should be aware that excited delirium may be the result of a potentially fatal cocaine intoxication; its appearance should prompt immediate transport of the victim to a medical facility. Continuous monitoring, administration of appropriate cocaine antagonists, and respiratory support will hopefully avert a fatal outcome.