Biting the hand that feeds them? Abkhazia–Russia client–patron relations

ABSTRACT

The article discusses the post-Soviet de facto state of Abkhazia, and its relationship to its main patron, Russia. All patron–client nexuses are marked by a high degree of asymmetrical power – especially with de facto states, which depend upon the patron for their very survival. Thus, it is surprising to see how de facto client states repeatedly show that they are both willing and able to defy the wishes of their patrons and pursue their own agendas instead. Moreover, the patron may be willing to tolerate such rebelliousness. What can explain such “disobedient” behavior? I examine three contentious aspects of Russian–Abkhazian relations: the process leading up to the signing of an extended bilateral agreement in 2014; the tussles over how to fight crime in Abkhazia; and acrimony over Abkhazia’s reluctance to allow Russians to buy property in their country, despite massive pressure from Russian authorities.     

Flunitrazepam: psychomotor impairment, agitation and paradoxical reactions

Benzodiazepines are sedatives used for anxiolysis, hypnosis, muscle relaxation and the treatment of epilepsy. Paradoxical reactions including agitation, talkativeness, confusion, disinhibition, aggression, violent behavior and loss of impulse control may, however, occur in some subjects. It has been claimed that high doses of flunitrazepam may cause aggression on a more regular basis in all individuals. The present study makes use of a Norwegian forensic toxicological database containing analytical results from drivers suspected of driving under the influence and suspects of violent crime to analyze the relationship between behavior and blood flunitrazepam concentration. Four-hundred and fifteen cases of drivers suspected of driving under the influence and seven cases of suspects of violent crime were studied. These selected cases had flunitrazepam as the only drug in blood samples and had been evaluated by a clinical test for impairment (CTI) performed by a police physician at the time of blood sampling. The impaired drivers had higher blood flunitrazepam concentrations than the not impaired drivers. Multivariate analysis revealed that both blood flunitrazepam concentration and age of the suspected drivers had independent impact on impairment, indicating tolerance with age. Most of the effects measured were sedative effects of flunitrazepam and these effects were related to flunitrazepam level. Possible paradoxical reactions were observed in a subgroup of 23 individuals (6%), but these reactions did not relate to blood flunitrazepam concentration. The suspects of violent crime showed similar degree impairment and had not more paradoxical reactions than the suspected drugged drivers. The findings were in agreement with other research that claims paradoxical reactions should be viewed as a reaction in certain individuals, and does not support the notion that flunitrazepam in high concentration produces aggression in all individuals taking the drug.     

Sudden cardiac death in a young woman: tumor of the atrioventricular (AV) node or citalopram intoxication?

Atrioventricular (AV) node tumor is a very rare lesion of the cardiac conduction system. Clinically, it is associated with complete AV block and sudden cardiac death, often in apparently healthy young people.We report a case of a 24-year-old woman who developed ventricular fibrillation during sexual intercourse and died before admittance to the hospital. The woman had a medical history of depression and was treated with citalopram.At first, no macroscopic or microscopic pathologic changes were found. Toxicologic analysis showed a toxic level of citalopram in the blood. Further microscopic examination of the cardiac conduction system disclosed a tumor of the AV node. Immunohistochemical staining confirmed endodermal origin in accordance with the latest hypothesis of the pathogenesis of this tumor.It was concluded that this young woman died of cardiac arrhythmia due to the AV tumor and not from citalopram intoxication, as first suspected. This case emphasizes the importance of a microscopic examination of the cardiac conduction system in cases of sudden unexpected death, even in cases with a plausible cause and manner of death at first glance.     

The EDNAP mitochondrial DNA population database (EMPOP) collaborative exercises: organisation, results and perspectives

This paper presents an overview of the organisation and the results of the collaborative exercises (CE) of the European DNA Profiling (EDNAP) Group's mitochondrial DNA population database project (EMPOP). The aim of the collaborative exercises was to determine whether uniformity of mtDNA sequencing results could be achieved among different laboratories. These were asked to sequence either the complete mtDNA control region or the two hypervariable regions HVI (16024-16365) and HVII (73-340) from DNA extracts, buccal swabs or bloodstains, proceeding in accordance with the protocol and strategies used in each individual laboratory. The results of the collaborative exercises were employed to identify possible sources of errors that could arise during the analysis and interpretation of mtDNA profiles. These findings were taken as a basis to tentatively make suitable arrangements for the construction of a high quality mtDNA database. One hundred fifty mtDNA profiles were submitted to the evaluating laboratory, and disaccording profiles were classified into four groups corresponding to the source of error: clerical errors, sample mix-ups, contaminations and discrepancies with respect to the mtDNA nomenclature. Overall, 14 disaccording haplotypes (16 individual errors) were observed. The errors included 10 clerical errors, 3 interpretation problems, 2 cases of sample mix-up and 1 case of point heteroplasmic mixture, where the 2 sequencing reactions brought inconsistent base calls. This corresponds to an error rate of 10.7% in a virtual mtDNA database consisting of the collaborative exercise results. However, this estimate is still conservative compared to conclusions drawn by authors of meanwhile numerous publications critically reviewing published mtDNA population databases. Our results and earlier published concerns strongly emphasize the need for appropriate safety regulations when mtDNA profiles are compiled for database purposes in order to accomplish the high standard required for mtDNA databases that are used in the forensic context.