The reorientation of place legislation in England in the 1690s

Summary

Mediating Conflict in the Swiss Diets of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries

The Helvetic Confederation developed in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries as a web of alliances between the most important urban and peasant republics (Orte) in the area of present‐day Switzerland. The only form of mediating conflicts laid down in the alliances was by tribunals of arbitration; but these were never recognised by all the Orte in the web of alliances and proved inadequate in the face of growing antagonisms and coalitions throughout the Confederacy. It became necessary to have recourse to political arrangements involving the interested parties. The forum for these arrangements was the Diets, meetings of deputies of all members of the Confederacy. These more or less represented the most important political forces. Difficulties arose only when there was no consensus in individual Orten and when the official deputies to the Diet represented only the magistrates (Obrigkeiten). In such cases it could happen, especially in matters of foreign policy, that individual groups went their own way and thwarted the decisions of the Diet. It usually took a long time to arrive at a consensus in the Diets because the deputies were bound by an ‘imperative mandate’ and the minority would mostly not accept the will of the majority. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries participation and the achievement of consensus were the conditions of joint action of the Helvetic Confederation.     

政治经济学批判视域中的恩格斯辩证法

围绕辩证法,一些西方学者常常得出恩格斯和马克思对立的观点。反驳这种错误观点有一条重要路径:恩格斯的辩证法并非局限于自然领域,而是以政治经济学批判的方式融入社会—历史当中。具体而言,它主要体现在三个方面:一是将辩证法奠基于现实经验的基础之上;二是准确阐释了马克思辩证法作为唯一正确的思想发展形式;三是进一步完善了政治经济学批判方法与对象的统一理论。这些贡献表明:一方面,在现实基础、基本形式、实践旨趣方面,恩格斯辩证法和马克思辩证法在根本上是一致的;另一方面,恩格斯对黑格尔辩证法有着深刻的理解,能够准确把握它与马克思辩证法的区别。这将有助于澄清对恩格斯辩证法的曲解和误解,也是对“矮化”恩格斯辩证法、制造恩格斯和马克思关于辩证法的思想对立的有力回应。     

Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation,Ruling of February 8, 2001, No. 15-O

In Nal' chik they are estimating the losses caused at residences during an attack by fighters and are replacing glass in the buildings in the Iskozh neighborhood, located near the third city division of internal affairs, where the fighters held hostages for more than a day.     

Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation,Determination of October 3, 2002, No. 233-O

A group of members of the Public Chamber adopted a petition addressed to the parliament. It contains a proposal to improve the legislation in the sphere of countering extremist activity.