The national dimension of citizenship in T.H. Marshall

In the revival of the political theory of citizenship, T.H. Marshall is a seminal influence. A major attraction is clearly his apparent reversal of the usual relation between membership and rights. Whereas rights are commonly regarded as deriving from membership, Marshall raises the possibility that appropriate combinations of rights may be constitutive of membership in the form of citizenship, a form not determined by any prior identity. This is of immediate relevance for analysis of possible postnational reformulations of citizenship. Yet theoretical discussion must take seriously the derivation of membership from rights, which requires attention to the concrete sociological process by which rights become endowed with meaning. Although it has received comparatively little comment, this theme is central to Marshall's discussion, which provides some suggestive pointers to the main theoretical issues. In particular, Marshall reproduces the standard British ambivalence about the ‘national’, which is variously and sometimes confusingly distinguished from the ‘local’, the ‘private’ and the ‘foreign’. The ‘civilisation’ of which Marshall suggests that it should be a ‘common heritage’ is historically situated—in fact it is precisely because it is in one sense already common that social pressure gradually causes it to be recognized as such. In other words, it is possible to show that Marshall's analysis specifically addresses the issues of citizenship within the nation‐state. Its potential relevance beyond the nation‐state requires, therefore, explicit discussion of the social basis of belonging that Marshall, for his own purposes, was able to take for granted.     

Reviews

Big Men, Small Boys and Politics in Ghana: Power, Ideology and the Burden of History, 1982–1994 by Paul Nugent. Pinter Publishing Limited (London and New York). 1995. xiv plus 306pp. including bibliography and index. £35 or $63 hardback.

Understanding Contemporary Africa (2nd edition) edited by April A. Gordon and Donald L. Gordon. Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder and London. 1996. xiv plus 432pp. including maps, illustrations, notes, bibliographies, appendices and index.

The Politics of Difference: Ethnic Premises in a World of Power edited by Edwin N. Wilmsen and Patrick McAllister. University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London. 1996. ix plus 210pp.

The Multilateral Development Banks. Volume 1. The African Development Bank by E. Philip English and Harris M. Mule. The North‐South Institute. Ottawa. 1996. xvi plus 213pp.

Brothers at War: Dissidence and Rebellion in Southern Africa by Abiodun Alao. British Academic Press, London and New York. 1994. xiii plus 201pp. including notes, bibliography, index. £39.50. Hardback.

Now that We are Free: Coloured Communities in Democratic South Africa edited by Wilmot James, Daria Caliguire and Kerry Cullinan. Lynne Rienner Publishing, Boulder (Colorado) and London. 1996. 142pp.

Imperialism or Solidarity? International Labour and South African Trade Unions by Roger Southall. University of Cape Town Press, Cape Town. 1995. 398pp.

The Aid Relationship in Zambia: A Conflict Scenario by Oliver Saasa and Jerker Carlsson. Institute for African Studies, Lusaka (Zambia) and Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala (Sweden). 1996. 170pp. including figures, tables, notes, bibliography and index. Paperback.     

Reviews

Marie Lavigne, The Economics of Transition. From Socialist Economy to Market Economy. London: Macmillan, 1995, xvi + 295 pp., £13.99.

Michael L. Wyzan (ed.), First Steps Toward Economic Independence: New States of the Postcommunist World. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1995, xii + 268 pp., £53.95

J. Barkley Rosser, Jr & Marina V. Rosser, Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy. Chicago, IL: Irwin, xx + 488 pp.

Masahiko Aoki & Hyung‐Ki Kim (eds),. Corporate Governance in Transitional Economies. Insider Control and the Role of Banks. Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1995, xxiii + 467 pp., £29.95.

Marvin Jackson & Valentijn Bilsen (eds), Company Management and Capital Market Development in the Transition. Aldershot: Avebury, 1994, xxii + 281 pp., £40.00.

Nicolai N. Petro, The Rebirth of Russian Democracy: An Interpretation of Political Culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995, ix + 226 pp., £25.50.

Judith Devlin, The Rise of the Russian Democrats: The Causes and Consequences of the Élite Revolution. Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1995, x + 294 pp., £49.95.

Mark Galeotti, The Kremlin's Agenda. Coulsdon: Jane's Intelligence Review, 1995, ix+ 162 pp., £20.00.

James E. Goodby (ed.), Regional Conflicts: The Challenge to US‐Russian Co‐operation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995, xiii + 251 pp., £30.00.

A. Z. Rubinstein & O. M. Smolansky (eds), Regional Power Rivalries in the New Eurasia. New York and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1995, xii + 290 pp., $22.95.

Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russia and Azerbaijan. A Borderland in Transition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1995, x + 290 pp., $32.50.

John Thirkell, Richard Scase & Sarah Vickerstaff (eds), Labour Relations and Political Change in Eastern Europe. A. Comparative Perspective. London: UCL Press, 1995, viii + 197 pp., £32.00.

Jennifer Turpin, Reinventing the Soviet Self: Media and Social Change in the Former Soviet Union. Westport, CT and London: Praeger, 1995, x + 154 pp., £44.95.

Geoffrey Roberts, The Soviet Union and the Origins of the Second World War: Russo‐German Relations and the Road to War, 1933–1941. Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1996, x + 192 pp., £37.50 h/b, £11.99 p/b.

Richard B. Day, Cold War Capitalism: The View from Moscow, 1945–1975. New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1995, xvi + 355 pp., $85.00 h/b., $34.95 p/b.

David Mayers, The Ambassadors and America's Soviet Policy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995, viii + 335 pp.

John L. H. Keep, Last of the Empires: A History of the Soviet Union, 1945–1991. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, xiii + 477 pp., £20.00.

Oleg V. Khlevniuk, In Stalin's Shadow. The Career of ‘Sergo’ Ordzhonikidze. Edited by Donald J. Raleigh. New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1995, x+ 193 pp., $21.95.

Gennadi V. Kostyrchenko, Out of the Red Shadows: Anti‐Semitism in Stalin's Russia. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1995, 333 pp., £21.00.

Genrich M. Deych, A Research Guide to Materials on the History of Russian Jewry (19th and Early 20th Centuries) in Selected Archives of the Former Soviet Union. Edited and Introduced by Benjamin Nathans. Moscow: Blagovest, 1995, xi + 149 pp.

Yuri Tsivian, Early Cinema in Russia and its Cultural Reception, trans. Alan Bodger; foreword. Tom Gunning; ed. Richard Taylor. London and New York: Routledge, 1994, xxii+273 pp., £45.00.

James R. Schlesinger (Project Chairman) et al., Nuclear Energy Safety Challenges in the Former Soviet Union. Washington, DC: CSIS, 1995, vii + 94 pp.     

Domestic Predation of an Elder: A Fatal Dog Attack Case

We present the case of a 91‐year‐old woman lived alone at her home with two domestic dogs, that is,, a Labrador Retriever and a Staffordshire Bull Terrier and found dead. The investigation of the scene revealed that the Bull Terrier's jawbone and chest were covered with blood. The autopsy revealed multiple, histologically confirmed, life‐threatening skin and bone lacerations without scavenging marks. The punctures and tearing of each of the wounds on the skin were compatible with bites. A left humeral fracture and multiple fractures of the right facial bones were observed. The death was attributed to external hemorrhages due to several dog bites. A veterinary physical and behavioral examination indicated that the Bull Terrier was involved in the attack. A domestic predation hypothesis was deemed here most likely due to the presence of food supplies at the scene, the dog's previous history of attack, and the breed of the dog.     

“Mtwara will be the New Dubai”: dashed expectations,grievances, and civil unrest in Tanzania

When does inequality lead to conflict? Despite recent studies highlighting the effects of group exclusion, this question has not been fully answered. We argue that objective group inequality is not sufficient to fuel unrest. Structural inequalities need to be perceived as unfair, and become grievances, in order to spark mobilization. While most conflict scholars recognize this on a theoretical level, statistical tests of the effect of inequality on conflict almost exclusively rely on objective data. This limits their ability to distinguish when inequality is politically relevant and when it is not. Southern Tanzania is a case in point. Despite decades of marginalization, the population remained peaceful until natural gas was discovered, and the government was perceived to break their promises of local development. Demonstrating that objective regional inequalities have remained relatively constant, while group grievances seems to have increased, we argue that direct measures of grievances are needed to pinpoint when inequality becomes politically salient. Using novel survey data, we find that people who think that the region is treated unfairly have the highest likelihood of supporting and participating in civil unrest.     

Gender models: changing representations and intersecting roles in Dutch and Italian fashion magazines, 1982–2011

This article presents a comparative content analysis of gender representation in fashion magazines in Italy and the Netherlands. Updating Goffman’s classic study of Gender Advertisements, we study the intersections of gender, professional role, country and time in media representation. Thus, we combine and confront quantitative content analysis with insights from critical gender studies on polysemy and intersectionality. Analyzing a sample of 5840 images from mainstream, commercial and high fashion magazines published in 1982, 1996 and 2011, we find that gender representation strongly intersects with time, place, and notably: professional role. Models, who represent the specific ‘aesthetic capital’ of the fashion field, are portrayed in highly specific ways. Over time, gender differences in representation become stronger in Italy, while in the Netherlands male and female representation converges towards conventionally ‘feminine’ styles. In both countries, we find increasing prominence of (North-American) Goffmanian gender conventions and a new ‘withdrawn’ gendered style emerging in the early 2000s. This new style employs new signs and conventions to denote gender and professional status: it separates men from women, and models from non-models. Our analysis shows, first, that gender representation does not directly reflect gender inequality. Second, it demonstrates the impact of globalization on gender representation. Third, it highlights the polysemy and cultural specificity of visual signs: gender difference can be ‘ritualized’ and ‘stylized’ in various ways. These diverse gendered conventions intersect with other characteristics, and may convey diverse, and changing messages about the relation between gender and sexuality, power, aesthetics and (visual) pleasure.     

Voting on a constitution: Implications for democracy in Kenya

In November 2005, Kenya held its first-ever national referendum on a proposed constitution. After a contentious review process, 58% of voters rejected the final document. It is common in the analysis of Kenyan politics to rely on ethnic explanations; indeed, the referendum results cannot be understood without exploring ethnic cleavages in Kenyan society. However, an exclusive focus on ethnicity obscures other factors that influenced voters, including the controversial process of drafting the constitution, the mobilisation efforts of the ‘yes’ and ‘no’ campaigns, and the perceived performance of the government. In the end, the referendum was seen as a positive step toward democratic consolidation in Kenya and raised hopes for the future. For the second time in three years, voters rejected the preference of the sitting government, which respected the results. Hopes were dashed, though, when irregularities marred the 2007 election and the announcement of contested results sparked a wave of violence. Under intense domestic and international pressure, the opposing sides reached a power-sharing agreement, as the need for a new constitutional order in Kenya became even more apparent.