A new framework for testing the effect of government spending on growth and productivity

Does government spending have a positive or negative effect on economic growth? The results of earlier empirical studies give mixed results. In this study we suggest a new method for testing the effect of different kinds of government expenditure on productivity growth in the private sector. The focus on productivity in the private sector and the use of disaggregated data makes it possible to avoid or mitigate a number of methodological problems. The major conclusions, which are quite robust, are that government transfers, consumption and total outlays have consistently negative effects, while educational expenditure has a positive effect, and government investment has no effect on private productivity growth. The impact is also found to work solely through total factor productivity and not via the marginal productivity of labor and capital.     

Age estimation in small children: reference values based on counts of deciduous teeth in Finns

The eruption of teeth in the mouth is suitable for age estimations during the period when teeth are actively emerging, in the deciduous dentition phase approximately from the age of 6 months to 2.5 years. Estimations of age can be performed simply by counting the number of teeth in the mouth. Reliability of the estimates depends on the reference data available and each population group should preferably have its own standards. In the present study timing of eruption of successive deciduous teeth was studied longitudinally in 129 Finns. The dates of clinical eruption of deciduous teeth were recorded by mothers and checked by dentists. In 40 of the 129 children emergence ages of at the most the four last teeth were based only on semiannual registrations performed by dentists. The main purpose was to provide normal timetables of tooth eruption in small children in forms that are practical in estimations of dental age. No sexual dimorphism existed in the timing of clinical eruption of successive deciduous teeth. The mean age corresponding to the presence of one tooth in the mouth was 7.1 months (S.D.=1.78) and that corresponding to tooth count 19 was 27.8 months (S.D.=3.99). If the chronological age is known, the presented distributions and means with variations make it possible to estimate the degree of advancement or delay in a child's dental development. If the age of the child is not known, the mean and median ages can be used for estimations of chronological age. However, estimations of age should not be based only on tooth counts because of marked variation also within this homogeneous group.     

Benzodiazepine findings in blood and urine by gas chromatography and immunoassay

Gas chromatography (GC) and immunoassay techniques applied to blood and urine specimens were compared for the screening of benzodiazepines in postmortem forensic toxicology. Five hundred and six such successive postmortem cases in which both urine and peripheral blood was sent for toxicological analysis by the medical examiners were selected. The urine specimens were tested by the Emit((R)) d.a.u. Benzodiazepine Assay, and in parallel, the blood and urine specimens were screened for benzodiazepine drugs and their metabolites by an established automated dual-column GC method. The lowest number of positives (153) was obtained when immunoassay was performed without enzyme hydrolysis. When urine samples were hydrolysed before immunoassay, the number of positives increased to 175. The highest number of positives (200) was obtained in urine by GC, and the screening of blood by GC yielded 185 quantitative results. Despite the urine GC screening produced the most positives, the quantitative screening of the blood by GC appears to be the most efficient approach in postmortem forensic toxicology, considering the fact that although urine findings confirm the presence of the drug, quantitative results in urine are irrelevant to acute toxicity.     

Microscopic study of powders of hallucinogenic mushrooms--Psilocybe sp

The paper presents simple methods for microscopic examination and basic microchemical testing for the identification of suspect mushroom powders. The microscopic features of the most commonly cultivated and trafficked hallucinogenic genus Psilocybin are described and may serve for the decision whether any suspect material consists of such mushroom powder (and is therefore to be subjected to further analysis) or not.     

Premature detachment of the placenta due to kicks to the lower abdomen

An 18-year-old woman in an advanced stage of pregnancy was admitted to hospital for gynaecological emergency treatment with pain after kicks to the lower abdomen. Premature detachment of the placenta was diagnosed and an immediate Caesarian section was performed. Although the newborn was resuscitated at once by the medical team, it died two days later in the paediatric hospital from multiorgan failure. The autopsy results together with the pathological findings of the palcenta proved the causal context between the kicks, the premature detachment of the placenta and the hypoxia requiring postnatal resuscitation, so that the perpetrator was found guilty.     

Adolescent homicides in Finland: offence and offender characteristics

Approximately 9% of the homicides in Finland are committed by adolescents under 20 years of age. The purpose of this study was to investigate the offence and offender characteristics in homicidal adolescents. Forensic psychiatric evaluation statements of adolescent offenders accused of a homicide during 1990-2001 were reviewed retrospectively (n=57). In 38% of the cases, there were multiple offenders. In 58% of the cases, the victim was an acquaintance, in 25% a stranger, in 12% a family member and in 5% of the cases an (ex)intimate partner. Sixty-nine percent of the offenders were intoxicated and 21% under the influence of drugs at the time of the killing. The most frequent motives were an argument (25%) and a robbery (25%). Sixty-four percent of the offenders had developmental problems and 42% had a crime history. Approximately half were diagnosed as having a conduct or a personality disorder, but 32% of the offenders were considered not to suffer from a mental illness or substance abuse. For 63%, the level of intellectual functioning was average or above average. There were signs of more than one form of violence in 54% of the cases and 28% of the cases contained excessive violence. The use of multiple and excessive violence was significantly related to the offender age, multiple offenders, offender-victim relationship and substance abuse, but not related to having developmental problems, crime history or mental illness.     

Reform, change, and continuity in Finnish health care

This article describes some essential aspects of the Finnish political and governmental system and the evolution of the basic institutional elements of the health care system. We examine the developments that gave rise to a series of health care reforms and reform proposals in the late 1980s and early 1990s and relate them to changes in health care expenditure, structure, and performance. Finally, we discuss the relationship between policy changes, reforms, and health system changes and the strength of neo-institutional theory in explaining both continuity and change. Much of the change in Finnish health care can be explained by institutional path dependency. The tradition of strong but small local authorities and the lack of legitimate democratic regional authorities as well as the coexistence of a dominant Beveridge-style health system with a marginal Bismarckian element explain the specific path of Finnish health care reform. Public responsibility for health care has been decentralized to smaller local authorities (known as municipalities) more than in any other country. Even an exceptionally deep economic recession in the early 1990s did not lead to systems change; rather, the economic imperative was met by the traditional centralized policy pattern. Some of the developments of the 1990s are, however, difficult to explain by institutional theory. Thus, there is a need for testing alternative theories as well.     

The EDNAP mitochondrial DNA population database (EMPOP) collaborative exercises: organisation, results and perspectives

This paper presents an overview of the organisation and the results of the collaborative exercises (CE) of the European DNA Profiling (EDNAP) Group's mitochondrial DNA population database project (EMPOP). The aim of the collaborative exercises was to determine whether uniformity of mtDNA sequencing results could be achieved among different laboratories. These were asked to sequence either the complete mtDNA control region or the two hypervariable regions HVI (16024-16365) and HVII (73-340) from DNA extracts, buccal swabs or bloodstains, proceeding in accordance with the protocol and strategies used in each individual laboratory. The results of the collaborative exercises were employed to identify possible sources of errors that could arise during the analysis and interpretation of mtDNA profiles. These findings were taken as a basis to tentatively make suitable arrangements for the construction of a high quality mtDNA database. One hundred fifty mtDNA profiles were submitted to the evaluating laboratory, and disaccording profiles were classified into four groups corresponding to the source of error: clerical errors, sample mix-ups, contaminations and discrepancies with respect to the mtDNA nomenclature. Overall, 14 disaccording haplotypes (16 individual errors) were observed. The errors included 10 clerical errors, 3 interpretation problems, 2 cases of sample mix-up and 1 case of point heteroplasmic mixture, where the 2 sequencing reactions brought inconsistent base calls. This corresponds to an error rate of 10.7% in a virtual mtDNA database consisting of the collaborative exercise results. However, this estimate is still conservative compared to conclusions drawn by authors of meanwhile numerous publications critically reviewing published mtDNA population databases. Our results and earlier published concerns strongly emphasize the need for appropriate safety regulations when mtDNA profiles are compiled for database purposes in order to accomplish the high standard required for mtDNA databases that are used in the forensic context.     

Comparison of ethyl glucuronide and fatty acid ethyl ester concentrations in hair of alcoholics, social drinkers and teetotallers

In previous investigations hair analysis for ethyl glucuronide (EtG) and fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE) proved to be suitable for the detection of excessive alcohol consumption. The aim of this study was to compare EtG and FAEE concentrations in hair of alcoholics, social drinkers and teetotallers. Hair samples from 10 alcoholics in withdrawal treatment, 11 fatalities with documented excessive alcohol consumption, four moderate social drinkers who consumed up to 20 g ethanol per day, and three strict teetotallers were analysed. After external degreasing with n-heptane, extraction with a dimethyl sulfoxide/n-heptane mixture and headspace solid-phase microextraction of the extracts, four fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs) (ethyl myristate, ethyl palmitate, ethyl oleate and ethyl stearate) were analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) with deuterated internal standards. EtG was determined by GC-MS/NCI after ultrasonication of the samples with H2O, cleanup by SPE with aminopropyl columns and PFP derivatisation. The following concentrations were measured for the four groups: teetotallers EtG < 0.002 ng/mg, FAEE 0.05-0.37 ng/mg, moderate social drinkers EtG < 0.002 ng/mg, FAEE 0.26-0.50 ng/mg, alcoholic patients EtG 0.030-0.415 ng/mg, FAEE 0.65-20.50 ng/mg and the fatalities with alcohol history EtG 0.072-3.380 ng/mg, FAEE 1.30-30.60 ng/mg. The results confirm that by using a cut-off value of the sum of FAEE > 1 ng/mg and/or a positive EtG result in hair, excessive alcohol consumption can be identified using hair analysis. However, no significant correlation between the EtG and FAEE concentrations in the positive cases could be shown. Segmental analysis of some of the specimens did not reveal the same distribution for EtG compared to FAEE in hair, and no chronological accordance compared to the self-reported alcohol consumption could be observed for both parameters. These different results of both methods are discussed in terms of differences between EtG and FAEE in mechanism of formation and incorporation into hair and elimination from hair.