Criminal Behavior in Opioid‐Dependent Patients Before and During Maintenance Therapy: 6‐year Follow‐Up of a Nationally Representative Cohort Sample

Lifetime prevalence of opioid dependence is about 0.4% in western countries. Opioid‐dependent patients have high morbidity and mortality and a high risk of criminal behavior. Few studies have addressed the long‐term impact of opioid maintenance therapy on convictions and criminal behavior. The PREMOS study is a prospective, longitudinal, naturalistic clinical study of a nationally representative sample of 2694 opioid‐dependent patients to investigate convictions and criminal behavior at baseline and after 6 years of maintenance treatment. At follow‐up, 2284 patients still were eligible (84.7%). A comprehensive assessment including a patient and doctor questionnaire, and the EuropASI was completed at baseline and follow‐up. Data on criminality at follow‐up had been received for 1147 (70.6%) patients. A large number (84.5%) of them had been charged or convicted at any time before baseline assessment, most frequently with drug‐related offenses (66.8%), acquisitive crime (49.1%), or acts of violence (22.0%). Reported charges and convictions had declined to 17.9% for the last 12 months before follow‐up, which was also reflected by a significant decrease in the EuropASI subscore “legal problems” from 1.52 at baseline to 0.98 after 6 years. These data indicate a significant and clinically relevant reduction in criminal behavior in opioid‐dependent patients in long‐term maintenance treatment. Maintenance therapy is effective in the reduction in both narcotics‐related and acquisition crime.     

Mass, NMR and IR spectroscopic characterization of pentedrone and pentylone and identification of their isocathinone by-products

This study presents and discusses the mass spectrometric, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic and infrared spectroscopic data of the designer drugs pentedrone (2-methylamino-1-phenylpentan-1-one) and its methylenedioxy analog pentylone (2-methylamino-1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)pentan-1-one). The structure elucidation of the aliphatic parts was carried out by product ion spectroscopy of the immonium ion with m/z=86 formed after electron ionization, and by one- and two-dimensional (1)H- and (13)C-NMR spectroscopy on the hydrochloride salts to verify the structure of the alkyl side chain and to determine the methylenedioxy position in the aromatic ring of pentylone. Furthermore, two typical cathinone synthesis by-products were detected besides the main compounds. Their mass spectra are discussed and for one of them (1-methylamino-1-phenylpentan-2-one (isopentedrone)) a NMR assignment was possible in the existing mixture.     

Development of rust stains on the skin due to contact with a gun

In order to study the conditions for the formation of so-called rustmarks on the skin after contact with weapon steel tests to provoke rustmarks were performed on corpses and living bodies. These tests were only successful under the condition of a firm contact with the weapon steel and a certain minimum contact time between the weapon and the skin. The experiments showed that the critical parameters for the appearance of rustmarks are, first, the humidity of the skin and the environment, respectively, as well as the contact time, and second, the state of the weapon surface (greased or ungreased). Both the ambient temperature and the pH value of the skin (alkaline or acid) are irrelevant to the formation of rust. The longest time period until rustmarks appeared was observed on dry skin in contact with a greased weapon, namely 22 hours on a corpse and 170 min on a living subject. When using a greased gun humidity accelerated the formation of rust. An ungreased surface of the weapon also resulted in faster rust formation. The minimum time necessary for the formation of rust determined under the most favourable circumstances was 135 min for a corpse and 27 min for a living person. During the early postmortal interval the rustmark may therefore be another piece in the jigsaw towards determining the time of death on suicides committed with firearms.     

Isomeric fluoro-methoxy-phenylalkylamines: a new series of controlled-substance analogues (designer drugs)

An impressively large number of clandestinely produced controlled-substance analogues (designer drugs) of amphetamine with high structural variety have been encountered in forensic samples in recent years. The continuous designer drug exploration and their widespread consumption results in an increasing number of reports regarding abuse and intoxication. This study presents the analytical properties of a series of new fluoro-methoxy-substituted controlled-substance analogues of amphetamine. Three ring positional isomeric fluoroamphetamines, two isomeric fluoromethoxyamphetamines, two N-alkyl 4-fluoroamphetamines, and one 4-fluorophenylbutan-2-amine were identified and differentiated by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), 1H- and 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and gas chromatography-infrared spectroscopy (GC-IR). The regioisomeric 2-, 3-, and 4-fluoroamphetamines and the regioisomeric fluoro-methoxyamphetamines show virtually identical mass spectra so that this method is insufficient to discriminate between these closely related compounds. The mass spectra of the acetylated compounds allowed a differentiation of the 4-fluoroamphetamine from its regioisomeric 2- and 3-fluoroamphetamines. The gas chromatographic properties of the three regioisomeric fluoroamphetamines and their acetylated and trifluoroacetylated derivatives are also so similar that a complete separation of these compounds could not be achieved under GC-MS conditions. The two isomeric compounds 5-fluoro-2-methoxyamphetamine and 3-fluoro-4-methoxyamphetamine on the other hand showed significant different gas chromatographic retention times so that a separation was uncomplicated. The trifluoroacetylation of these compounds proved to be an effective method for their mass spectral differentiation. Gas chromatography-infrared spectroscopy and 1H- and 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance allowed an unequivocal differentiation of all studied regioisomeric fluoroamphetamines and fluoro-methoxyamphetamines.     

External injuries to the neck after free fall from great height

Falls from great height are suicidal in most cases. Any antecedent trauma that would indicate an involvement of a third party should, however, be excluded in each case. Herein lies the difficulty in such cases since injuries prior to the fall which could be of criminal nature may be masked by the impact injuries. Injuries on unexposed parts of the body should always raise the suspicion of an involvement of a third party. This applies especially for neck injuries. By a retrospective analysis of 132 cases of falls from great height, the authors conclude, however, that neck injuries may occur after free fall from great height on a flat surface without antecedent trauma.     

Prevalence of mental disorders among sexual offenders in forensic psychiatry and prison

The objective of this study was to compare the prevalence of mental disorders among sexual offenders in forensic psychiatry (SF) with the prevalence of such disorders among sexual offenders in prison (SP) and violent offenders in prison (VP). In a cross-sectional study, 40 of 47 SF detained in forensic psychiatry in Baden-Wuerttemberg, Germany, could be included. They were compared with 30 SP and 26 VP. All study participants were interviewed by means of SCID I and SCID II and assessments of functioning (GAF, BSS). There was a high prevalence of mental disorders (DSM-IV: Axis I) in all three groups (SF: 80%, SP: 63%, VP: 73%). Among SP and VP, this was attributed mainly to substance use disorders. The prevalence and comorbidity of personality disorders was significantly higher in the group of the SF (prevalence: SF: 85%, SP: 27%, VP: 39%). In a psychopathological view, SP were all together more similar to the imprisoned non-sexual delinquent VP than to the SF.     

Feelings of revenge, retaliation motive, and posttraumatic stress reactions in crime victims

Individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are often said to experience strong feelings of revenge. However, there is a need for confirmatory empirical studies. Therefore, in a study of 174 victims of violent crimes, the relation between feelings of revenge and posttraumatic stress reactions was investigated. Feelings of revenge were correlated with intrusion and hyperarousal but not with avoidance. Feelings of revenge explained incremental variance of intrusion and hyperarousal when the variance explained by victimological variables was controlled. The retaliation motive implied in feelings of revenge did not account for the relation between feelings of revenge and posttraumatic stress reactions. However, the relation was moderated by the time since victimization. Therefore, feelings of revenge must presumably be regarded as a maladaptive coping reaction to experienced injustice, but not in the first period after victimization.     

The evolution of economic institutions as a propagation process

Based on some notions from recent game theoretic approaches to explain the emergence of institutions, a model is put forward which implies some generalizations and extensions. First, the evolution of institutions is interpreted as a diffusion process. This interpretation provides a general formal framework to cover both, the case of strategic and that of non-strategic interaction. Second, different forms of interdependency effects between the individuals involved are identified as making the crucial difference between the case where institutions emerge spontaneously in an unorganized form and the case where they do not.