The Diputación de la Grandeza and the organization of ‘Retrospective Art Exhibitions’ in the second half of the nineteenth century

This paper analyses the art policies deployed by old Spanish nobility in the second half of the nineteenth century, and in particular those who became involved in organising what were then known as retrospective art exhibitions. The old nobility, whose families held titles that dated back to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and belonged to the category of Grandes (Grandees) of Spain, joined together in the Diputación de la Grandeza de España – a private association created in opposition to the new nobility. It was a consultative institution attached to the Crown and created in 1815 under the honorary presidency of the King. This paper argues that the distinction sought by this regrouping of the old nobility does not imply lack of engagement in the new artistic model based on the notion of fine arts, in which they were responsible for a number of rather telling nuances. As well as sharing with the bourgeoisie the general idea that the arts were in need of protection, the nobility cultivated the image that patronage of the arts was linked to tradition, and this had consequences for the evaluation of history, the musealisation of their private collections and the public reception of old art.     

面向新世纪的文化发展战略

建设和谐文化是中国面向新世纪确立的文化发展战略,这一战略由战略目标、战略重点、战略步骤和战略对策等四个战略要素构成.作者在比较全面地分析这些战略要素所含内容的基础上,提出广大艺术工作者要自觉肩负起建设和谐文化、实现文化发展战略的庄严使命.     

新世纪第二个十年的热期望与冷思考

本世纪头二十年全面建设惠及十几亿人口更高水平的小康社会时间已经过半,成就喜人,问题也多多,这个重大的系统工程,需要在实践中不断探索前进。坚持马克思主义唯物史观,沿着中国特色社会主义道路,调动一切积极因素,不懈怠,不毛躁,才能稳步地达到既定目标。     

迈向法治新世纪 展望法学大趋势

21世纪是一个法治的世纪 ,也必将是一个法学大发展的世纪 ;参加本篇笔谈的 2 0余位学者 ,从各自不同的法学学科领域 ,以多方位的研究视角 ,展望了新世纪法治的未来走向和法学的发展趋势 ,提出了中国法制建设和中国法学研究正面临的许多新课题。     

21世纪初俄罗斯军事战略的调整方向

在新世纪到来之际,为实现国家振兴与长远发展,俄正在做出新的规划.21世纪初的俄罗斯军事战略将以对付面临的军事威胁为基本目标,贯彻以核武器为基本手段的战略遏制方针,建设一支均衡发展的现代化军队,加强对各种战略行动样式的研究和准备,推进以军事合作为基础的联盟防御,做好应付中小战争和武装冲突的准备.     

2000年以来户籍制度改革的基本评估与政策分析——21世纪以来中国城镇化进程中的户籍制度改革问题研究之一

中国城乡二元户籍制度的建立和形成,是新中国第一波工业化的产物.虽然在历史上曾支持了中国工业化的最初起步,但付出的社会成本极大,既显失公平,也丧失了效益,违背了现代化发展的一般规律和社会主义的平等原则.在保障实施重工业优先发展的工业化战略的同时,也迟滞了城市化的进程,形成了社会城乡二元结构的诸多深层次问题.在中国改革开放后,随着市场经济为导向的第二波工业化进程的推进,城镇化步骤加快,对城乡二元户籍制度形成了强烈的冲击.进入21世纪以来,中国的发展水平已达到了工业化中期.在推进第三波工业化过程中,作为城镇化战略的重要内容,国家进一步推动了城镇户籍改革,并取得了突破性的进展,城镇化和工业化的发展落差渐趋平衡.随着户籍改革的深入,在户籍制度背后的一些深层次问题也逐步显性化了,涉及方方面面的利益调整.因此,户籍改革必须在统筹兼顾中稳步推进,与新农村建设的城乡政策相配套,全面破除城乡二元结构的利益壁垒.     

Inheritance,succession, and familial transfer in rural Westphalia, 1800–1900

This article compares property transfer contracts between generations in two Prussian parishes where marital law differed significantly in the 19th century. Our sources focus on two critical phases in peasants' life cycles at the time. Whereas young people could find the resources to settle down, the older generation had to plan for their retirement. Although sons had a better chance of inheriting the farm, female successors were not rare. A peasant daughter's overall prospects of becoming a peasant by inheriting her parent's farm or marrying a farm successor were almost as good as her brother's. The situation for older women, however, was subject to their legal standing with regards to marital property. When couples held joint marital property, men and women had the same opportunities to arrange for retirement. In contrast, when couples held separate marital property and male succession prevailed, older women were at an evident disadvantage.     

From parish register to the “historical table”: The Prussian population statistics in the 17th and 18th centuries

This overview deals with the development of population statistics in Germany and Prussia, where different streams and trends in the field of statistics can be observed until the end of the 18th century: (1) the so-called university statistics (Staatenkunde); (2) political arithmetic; (3) table statistics; (4) “German Kameralia;” and (5) Prussian financial science. The most important sources for historical demographic research are the parish registers. In Germany, they start in the early or high Middle Ages as baptismal lists. In Prussia in the 16th century, parish registers consisted of entries and items of baptisms (births), marriages, and funerals (deaths). Based upon these parish registers at the end of 17th century in the Brandenburg Electorate, population lists were set up as registers or tables of population movement, as “general registers of the born, the married, the deceased, and the communicants.” Physicians and such Prussian medical authorities as the Collegium medicum and the Collegium sanitatis collected data about the causes of death and the longevity of human life (people more than 90 years old). In the course of 120 years during the 17th and 18th centuries, about 350,000 immigrants came to Brandenburg-Prussia. The Prussians developed excellent migration and census statistics in the form of historical tables. From the founding of the Prussian Office of Statistics in 1805 until its reorganization in 1809–1810, historical tables were set up using population statistics.     

Poor relief and families in nineteenth-century Ireland and Italy

This article examines the extent to which poor relief supported families and households in two contrasting European (and predominantly Roman Catholic) countries, Ireland and Italy, over the long nineteenth century. The main focus of the article is on the poor law in Ireland and the extent to which it provided support to families and households. While nuclear and extended families dominated household structures in late nineteenth-century Ireland (at least in rural areas), we show that by 1900, the majority of persons supported in workhouses were single. However, outdoor relief also formed an important part of the Irish poor law system and data on the household composition of persons supported is not available from official sources. Drawing on a data-matching exercise for one poor law union, this article suggests that the household structure of persons on outdoor relief may have been more complex than the official data would indicate and, in contrast to indoor relief, much more representative of overall household structures. In order to put these findings in context we compare the Irish approach with that adopted in Italy.     

“We weren't the sort that wanted intimacy every night”: Birth control and abstinence in England,c.1930–60

This article presents an exploration of qualitative evidence on the relationship between birth control and abstinence from an oral history project, which interviewed middle and working-class English men and women, who had married between the late 1920s and the early 1950s. Among the working classes the assumption that men were responsible for birth control choices and the disadvantages that contraceptive methods of all types posed, combined with the fear of pregnancy, acted as a disincentive to have sex and resulted in forms of partial abstinence. Among the middle classes, women had much more access to birth control information and as a consequence a greater range of methods was used, including more female methods. However, the reluctance of couples to discuss sexual matters, and some continued preference for male methods meant that while condoms were the most regularly used middle-class male method, both withdrawal and abstinence were also in evidence. Moreover, although partners were more likely to discuss birth control at the start of their marriages, they were less likely to agree that contraception was a male responsibility and there was greater potential for conflict over contraceptive methods, not infrequently resulting in abstinence. The evidence suggests that sexual and contraceptive practices in marriages in England at the end of the secular fertility decline do not present a picture which straightforwardly correlates with the assumptions represented by the popular thesis that this period of increased fertility control was closely associated with the rise of companionate marriage.