Organizing knowledge spillovers when basic and applied research are interdependent: German biotechnology policy in historical perspective

The German biotechnology lag illuminates the difficulties of finding appropriate organizational forms of R&D for “embryo” innovations requiring the continued involvement of basic research scientists even after innovation has advanced to the stage of commercial product development. The analysis charts the German policy shift from largely unsuccessful “corporatist” networks (1970s and 1980s) to more promising “emergent” networks (1990s) as organizational vehicles for conducting biotechnology innovation. A constant of German R&D policy for most of the 20th century, and one underlying the initial reliance on corporatist networks in biotechnology, was the tendency to exclude universities from major R&D initiatives and rely instead on specialized research institutes. The structural inflexibilities of universities, combined with the early successes of many specialized research institutes from the 1880s on, led to path-dependent reliance on the latter for 20th-century reforms of the German national innovation system.      

经济风险的战争效应：安全跨域外溢机制研究

巴里.布赞的新综合安全分析框架提供了安全跨域外溢的分析方法，克服了不同领域的安全研究相互割裂的局限。文章基于新综合安全观的视角分析经济风险的战争效应，提出“二阶段论”的理论框架，将经济风险促成战争的过程分为经济安全和军事安全两个阶段。第一阶段通常是线性逻辑，经济风险通过影响一国经济基本面演变为经济威胁；第二阶段是复杂的多线程逻辑，经济威胁可能通过激励和诱发两种机制作用于军事安全领域，产生或加强实力—安全困境、破窗困境、存续困境和防御困境等四种困境，最终促成战争爆发。二阶段论在现实中有五种运行逻辑，分别是直接与军事安全相关、效率与安全的矛盾、货币霸权的衰落、经济依附和(国际)金融危机，历史案例为这五种逻辑提供了佐证。由此证明，二阶段论亦可作为新综合安全观在中观层面的补充与完善。