国际关系、全球治理和妇女非政府组织

随着冷战的结束和全球化步伐的加快,“全球治理”逐步成为国际关系中的一个重要话题。全球治理的主体不仅有各国政府,还包括各种政府间组织和国际非政府组织,妇女非政府组织是其中的一支活跃力量。它们积极关注危害整个人类的各种全球性问题的解决,并极力敦促将社会性别意识纳入决策主流,使女性主义国际关系理论的基本信念得到充分的体现。     

‘Big D’ and ‘little d’: two types of twenty-first century development?

Confusion between the idea of development as purposeful intervention and development as outcome has been addressed by efforts to distinguish ‘intentional’ from ‘immanent’ development, and the distinction between ‘big D’ development as Western post- World War Two modernisation in the Global South, and ‘little d’ as the creation of winners and losers within unfolding capitalist change. As a heuristic device this distinction has been put to a variety of uses within development studies, but it has rarely been subjected to further scrutiny. This paper asks (1) whether the distinction remains coherent or risks being stretched too far, and (2) whether it remains relevant within the changing landscape of twenty-first century development. It first traces the historical evolution of the distinction, and then presents an exploratory case study of Bangladesh’s garment sector in order to analyse the relationship between the two kinds of development empirically, identifying a number of contradictions and ambiguities. It finds that while the ‘D/d’ distinction remains useful at a general level, further conceptualisation is now needed, and its relevance may fade as the significance of Western aid declines.     

Chinese Economic Development and the Environment

Abstract

Using the perspective of political opportunity structure, this qualitative survey of primary sources attempts to determine whether environmental NGOs (ENGOs) in Kazakhstan are achieving institutionalisation from the standpoint of representative democracy, or are being co-opted by a corporatist national government. Are ENGOs the harbingers of the democratisation of the country that many observers hope to see? Given increases in the nation’s budgets for the environment and easing of NGO/ENGO legislation, the institutionalising project would seem to have some prospects for success. Concomitantly, the participation of civic groups in the policy arena has contributed to better governance through experiments in new forms of state-society partnership. However, these partnerships have under-performed. Local governments face conflicting demands, while the insufficient administrative and technical capacity of state agencies highlights the need for capacity building. On the political level, authentic ENGOs must compete for policy inclusion with co-opted “front” organisations selectively favoured by the national government, at the same time that the government’s ambiguity towards ENGOs retards the latter’s institutionalisation. The immediate future of environmental civic society is uncertain.     

Democratisation and environmental non-governmental organisations in Indonesia

The spread of democratic ideas from the late 1980s, along with the development of the democratisation movement, contributed to the quantitative growth of environmental non-governmental organisations (ENGOs) in Indonesia. In addition, the democratisation of formal institutions after the late 1990s facilitated ENGO activities. Importantly, democratisation has also contributed to the qualitative development of ENGOs. Democratic ideas “re-framed” environmental issues, politicising ENGO activities, even before the end of the Suharto regime. Since the late 1990s, democratic ideas have further shifted ENGO strategies to conform more with democratic values and institutions, while stimulating efforts to enhance accountability and representation within ENGOs. It is argued that these developments may enhance the quality of democracy.     

European‐Chinese relations in the Nineties

In recent decades, there have been many international campaigns on numerous issues. In turn, scholars have analysed the activist networks promoting human rights, environmental quality and global justice, developing theories of transnational advocacy, strategies and outcomes. However, analysts have seldom noted that the ‘progressive’ networks on which these theories have been based seldom act unopposed. Instead, on numerous global issues leftwing groups face fierce opposition from networks of rightwing activists. This article provides examples of such clashes, focusing on these understudied conservative networks. In addition, it outlines a theory for understanding the conflict of networks over many policy issues.     

Contextualising development projects among the San of Botswana: challenges of community gardening

The San of Botswana are marginalised and live in poverty. Through semi-structured interviews and participant observation in two San communities, we analyse challenges facing community garden initiatives, and find that the failure of the gardens related to how the San are treated, as well as how they themselves have come to view their situation as destitute people. We conclude that forced resettlement, and historical livelihood disruption, as well as government and NGO policies of doing development through welfare (e.g. handouts), to the neglect of genuine empowerment of people, are responsible for the limited success of the community gardens.

Contextualiser les projets de développement parmi les Sans du Botswana : les difficultés rencontrées dans le cadre des potagers communautaires

Les Sans du Botswana sont marginalisés et vivent dans la pauvreté. À travers des entretiens semi-structurés et l'observation des participants dans deux communautés sans, nous analysons les difficultés auxquelles se heurtent les initiatives de potagers communautaires et constatons que l’échec des potagers est lié à la manière dont les Sans sont traités, ainsi qu'au fait qu'ils ont eux-mêmes fini par voir leur situation comme celle de miséreux. Nous concluons que la réinstallation forcée et la perturbation des moyens de subsistance historiques, ainsi que les politiques suivies par les pouvoirs publics et les ONG de développement à travers les aides sociales (p. ex. dons d'argent) au lieu de favoriser une véritable autonomisation des personnes, sont à l'origine du succès limité des potagers communautaires.

Contextualizando proyectos de desarrollo entre los san de Botsuana: retos de los jardines comunitarios

Los san de Botsuana han sido marginalizados y viven en situación de pobreza. Apoyándose en entrevistas semiestructuradas y en observaciones participantes en dos comunidades san, las autoras analizan los retos que presentan las iniciativas de jardines comunitarios. Concluyen que el fracaso de los jardines se relaciona con la forma en que son tratados los san y con cómo ellos mismos perciben su propia situación de gente pobre. Asimismo, concluyen que la reubicación forzada, la disrupción de los medios de vida tradicionales, así como las políticas gubernamentales y aquellas impulsadas por ong que promueven el desarrollo a través de programas de bienestar (es decir, dádivas) a costa del empoderamiento genuino de las personas, constituyen las razones por las cuales los jardines comunitarios tuvieron un éxito limitado.

Contextualizando projetos de desenvolvimento entre os San de Botsuana: desafios das hortas comunitárias

Os San de Botsuana são marginalizados e vivem na pobreza. Através de entrevistas semi-estruturadas e observação participativa em duas comunidades San, analisamos os desafios que as iniciativas de horta comunitária enfrentam e constatamos que o fracasso das hortas estão relacionados ao modo como os San são tratados, assim como a maneira como eles próprios vêem sua situação de carência. Concluímos que o reassentamento forçado e alterações históricas dos meios de subsistência, além de políticas do governo e de ONGs para promover o desenvolvimento através de políticas de bem-estar (ex.: doações) em detrimento do empoderamento genuíno das pessoas são responsáveis pelo sucesso limitado das hortas comunitárias.     

“They don't garden here”: NGO constructions of Maya gardening practices in Belize

Communities in southern Belize have among the poorest health outcomes in the region, including high rates of under-nutrition. In response, an NGO school garden programme has been initiated to improve health and nutrition. An analysis of the programme as it relates to home garden practices and diet in two Q'eqchi' Maya communities illustrates the complexity of challenges faced by NGOs. Most notable are issues of legitimacy, cultural appropriateness, self-interest, and constructed conceptions of their target communities, all of which raise the question of what is more important: autonomous and healthy communities or the preservation of the NGO programme?

« Ils ne font pas de jardinage, ici » : constructions d'une ONG des pratiques de jardinage mayas au Belize

Les communautés du sud du Belize affichent certains des pires résultats de la région en matière de santé, y compris un taux élevé de sous-nutrition. Pour remédier à cette situation, un programme de potagers scolaires mené par une ONG a été lancé pour améliorer la santé et la nutrition. Une analyse du programme du point de vue de ses liens avec les pratiques de culture de potagers familiaux et le régime de deux communautés mayas Q'eqchi’ illustre la complexité des défis auxquels sont confrontés les ONG. Les questions les plus notables sont celles de la légitimité, du caractère approprié sur le plan culturel, de l'intérêt propre, et des conceptions construites de leurs communautés cibles, autant de questions qui soulèvent celle de savoir ce qui est plus important : des communautés autonomes et en bonne santé ou la préservation du programme de l'ONG?

“Aquí no realizan jardinería”: construcciones de ong en torno a las prácticas de jardinería de los indígenas mayas de Belice

Las comunidades del sur de Belice muestran algunos de los peores resultados de salud en la región, entre los que se incluye una alta tasa de desnutrición. Con el objetivo de mejorar la salud y de combatir la desnutrición, varias ong impulsaron un programa de jardines escolares. Una evaluación del programa en torno a las prácticas de jardinería en el hogar y a la dieta de dos comunidades maya q'eqchi’, ilustra la complejidad de los retos enfrentados por las ong. Entre los más destacados se encuentran temas de legitimidad, de idoneidad cultural, de interés egoísta y de conceptos construidos por las ong respecto a sus comunidades destinatarias. Estos retos provocan la reflexión en relación a si es preferible tener comunidades autónomas y sanas o conservar programas de ong.

“Eles não cultivam hortas aqui”: promoção de práticas maias de jardinagem por uma ONG em Belize

Comunidades do sul de Belize estão entre as que possuem os mais baixos indicadores de saúde da região, incluindo altas taxas de desnutrição. Em resposta ao problema, um programa de horta escolar de uma ONG foi criado para melhorar a saúde e nutrição. Uma análise do programa no que se refere a práticas de cultivo de horta doméstica e dieta em duas comunidades maias de Q'eqchi ilustra a complexidade dos desafios enfrentados pelas ONGs. Os pontos que mais chamam atenção são as questões de legitimidade, adequação cultural, interesse próprio e concepções construídas sobre suas comunidades-alvo. Tudo isso suscita a questão sobre o que é mais importante: comunidades autônomas e saudáveis ou a preservação do programa de ONG?     

Autonomy and policy independence in Africa: a review of NGO development challenges

Drawing on empirical data gathered from discussions with executive directors of NGOs in Ghana, this paper critically analyses the complex multi-tier relationships between NGOs and their donor partners and how these affect outcomes of their development projects in Ghana. The paper discusses how experiences with funding agencies inform crucial shifts in NGO programming for poverty alleviation. This paper argues that, given their (NGOs') peculiar positioning in development practice, a critical appraisal of power dynamics central to NGO operations (such as funding and ownership of development projects) is crucial to proposing new strategies of engagement with NGO activity in Africa.

Autonomie et indépendance sur le plan des politiques en Afrique : un bilan des défis de développement pour les ONG

Sur la base de données empiriques recueillies à partir de discussions avec des directeurs exécutifs d'ONG au Ghana, cet article analyse dans une optique critique les rapports complexes multi-niveaux entre les ONG et leurs partenaires bailleurs de fonds, et l'incidence qu'ils ont sur les résultats de leurs projets de développement au Ghana. Il traite de la manière dont les expériences avec des organismes donateurs façonnent des changements cruciaux dans la programmation des ONG en faveur de l'atténuation de la pauvreté. L'auteur soutient que, étant donné le positionnement particulier des ONG dans la pratique du développement, une évaluation critique de la dynamique de pouvoir centrale aux opérations des ONG (comme le financement et la propriété des projets de développement) est cruciale au moment de proposer de nouvelles stratégies en vue de la participation aux activités des ONG en Afrique.

Autonomía e independencia política en África: una revisión de los retos enfrentados por las ong en el desarrollo

Apoyándose en datos empíricos recabados a partir de diálogos sostenidos con los directores ejecutivos de ong en Ghana, el presente artículo analiza críticamente las relaciones complejas y de múltiples niveles que se establecen entre las ong y sus socios donantes. Del mismo modo, examina la manera en que dichas relaciones afectan los resultados obtenidos por sus proyectos de desarrollo en este país. Asimismo, el artículo revisa cómo las experiencias de las ong con las agencias de financiamiento, influyen en los cambios sustantivos detectados en los programas que han implementado para el alivio de la pobreza. El artículo sostiene que, dado el particular posicionamiento de las ong en la práctica del desarrollo, para proponer nuevas estrategias de involucramiento en las actividades que realizan en África, resulta crucial realizar una valoración crítica de las dinámicas del poder que se establecen en dichas actividades (por ejemplo, el financiamiento y el sentido de pertenencia de los proyectos de desarrollo).

Autonomia e independência de política na África: uma revisão dos desafios de desenvolvimento de ONGs

Baseando-se em dados empíricos coletados a partir de discussões com diretores executivos de ONGs de Gana, este artigo analisa de maneira crítica as relações complexas de vários níveis entre ONGs e seus parceiros doadores e como elas afetam os resultados de seus projetos de desenvolvimento em Gana. O artigo discute como as experiências com agências financiadoras influenciam mudanças cruciais em programas de ONGs para redução da pobreza. Este artigo argumenta que, tendo em vista o posicionamento peculiar (das ONGs) na prática de desenvolvimento, uma avaliação crítica da dinâmicas de poder central para operações de ONGs (tais como financiamento e posse de projetos de desenvolvimento) é crucial para se propor novas estratégias de engajamento com a atividade das ONGs na África.     

The potential of evaluation to promote sustainable development in Russian forest management

This article discusses the potential of evaluation to help NGOs, namely the WWF (the World Wide Fund for Nature), to promote sustainable development in the Russian forest sector. Application of evaluation can strengthen two out of three main functions of NGOs – their expertise and lobbying. The third function of NGOs, as legitimisers, is difficult to perform in the Russian institutional climate. International partnerships address the issue of legitimacy and secure funding for NGOs. This international support is beneficial to a capacity building process and should promote the implementation of independent evaluation, which, in turn, can be helpful to promote sustainable development.

Le potentiel de l'évaluation au moment de promouvoir le développement durable dans la gestion forestière en Russie

Cet article traite du potentiel de l'évaluation au moment d'aider les ONG, et notamment le WWF (Fonds mondial pour la nature), à promouvoir le développement durable dans le secteur forestier russe. L'application de l'évaluation peut renforcer deux des trois principales fonctions des ONG – leurs connaissances techniques et leur exercice de pression. La troisième fonction des ONG, celle de la légitimation, est difficile à mener dans le climat institutionnel russe. Les partenariats internationaux abordent la question de la légitimité et du financement sûr pour les ONG. Ce soutien international est avantageux pour un processus de renforcement des capacités et devrait promouvoir la mise en ?uvre d'une évaluation indépendante, laquelle peut se révéler utile dans la promotion du développement durable.

El potencial de la evaluación en la promoción del desarrollo sostenible en la gestión de bosques en Rusia

El presente artículo analiza el potencial que tiene la evaluación para apoyar a las ong, en particular el wwf (siglas en inglés del World Wide Fund for Nature), en su trabajo orientado a promover el desarrollo sostenible del sector forestal en Rusia. La aplicación de evaluaciones puede contribuir a fortalecer dos de las tres principales funciones de las ong: su experiencia y su cabildeo. La tercera función de las ong, ser legitimadoras, difícilmente puede ser realizada en el contexto institucional de Rusia. Más bien son las alianzas internacionales las que abordan el tema de la legitimidad y obtienen fondos para las ong. Este apoyo internacional aporta beneficios para el proceso de construcción de capacidades, pudiendo promover la implementación de evaluaciones independientes, las cuales, a su vez, pueden ser útiles para impulsar el desarrollo sostenible.

O potencial da avaliação para promover desenvolvimento sustentável na gestão florestal russa

Este artigo discute o potencial da avaliação para ajudar ONGs, especificamente o WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature), para promover o desenvolvimento sustentável no setor florestal russo. A aplicação da avaliação pode fortalecer duas das três principais funções das ONGs – seu conhecimento e trabalho de lobby. A terceira função das ONGs, como legitimadoras, é difícil desempenhar no ambiente institucional russo. Parcerias internacionais abordam a questão da legitimidade e asseguram financiamento para ONGs. Este apoio internacional é benéfico para um processo de capacitação e deve promover a implementação de avaliações independentes que, por sua vez, podem ser úteis para promover o desenvolvimento sustentável.