Crossing the boundary: Peasants,shepherds, and servants in a western Alpine community

In the historical and anthropological literature, western Alps servants were widely assumed to be few in number, and the importance of the institution of service therefore negligible. This study combines historical-demographic and ethnographic methods to investigate whether this was true of a community in the Italian western Alps with a mixed population of peasants and transhumant shepherds. Surprisingly, a valuable 1951 census reveals that seemingly small numbers hide what was actually a normal phase in the life course of peasant sons whom shepherds recruited to work as servants. Distinct patterns of life-cycle and lifetime service seem to have coexisted in the same community. The evidence also confirms that in southern Europe, as some recent studies have pointed out, the institution of service often was not just the circulation of young men and women between households but an asymmetrical exchange between different socioeconomic groups. Otherwise rigid social and cultural boundaries were thereby crossed.     

Widows,children and assistance from society in urban Northern Europe 1890–1910

The increasing urbanisation and industrialisation of the late 19th century promoted migration of families and individuals into the growing towns. As a consequence the protective network of kinship and village was lost. In the process the access to household production was also severely decreased. After the death of a husband in a labourer's household the widow had to face a difficult situation. The aim of this paper is to assess the standard of living of poor widows in the Nordic countries. To estimate the proportion of intrafamilial contributions, the role of the wider kinship group and to calculate level of support from poor relief authorities and other possible sources.     

The BT Kemi Scandal and the Establishment of the Environmental Crime Concept

This study analyses the significance of the 1977 BT Kemi scandal in Teckomatorp, Sweden for the establishment of the concept of 'environmental crime', first in the public debate and then later in legislation. The BT Kemi scandal is analysed as a 'focusing event' that placed the relationship between environmental pollution, responsibility, legislation and penal sanctions firmly on the political agenda. Several commissions of inquiry were established as a consequence, and in 1981 the Environmental Protection Act was revised and environmental crimes were included in the penal code. This tightening of the legislation had very little effect in practice, however, and this study examines why these legislative changes had so little practical impact. Attention is focused on the historical and societal contexts in which Swedish environmental legislation during the 1960s, as an explanation of why environmental crime has been and remains such a marginalized phenomenon. Shared mentalities in the area of environmental protection, which have evolved over time within public sector agencies and the private sector, coupled with an unequal emerged distribution of power and diffuse legislation, have obstructed the establishment of environmental crime. The BT Kemi scandal was a decisive factor in the coming of age of environmental offending, but it nonetheless takes time before a new form of crime becomes 'self-evident' and accepted as such in the wider society.     

知识产权的“去中心化”——此特币与登记制度

在全球化和互联网所构筑的社会经济新秩序中,传统的产权框架面对消解了民族国家的世界秩序,已经无法有效解决其带来的新问题。当知识产权在新秩序中将自身权利通过登记制度和国际贸易扩散到全球,登记制度也就蜕变成了一种“霸权”力量。对于货币产权的霸权,比特币的兴起及其提出的金融“去中心化”是对这一问题的直接回应。将比特币“去中心化”的产权确立的机理延伸到知识产权的领域,也就呼唤了知识产权的“去中心化”,以超越登记制度所建立起的知识产权确立框架,从而回应新秩序的挑战。     

Changing household patterns of young couples in low- and middle-income countries

While young couples in Western societies generally form a new household, in low-income societies new unions are often incorporated into existing households. However, there is a growing tendency in the nuclearization of households as intergenerational co-residence is undermined by growing wage labour opportunities that provide incentives for rural–urban migration and because small nuclear families adapt better to urban societies characterized by high geographic and social mobility. The objective of this paper is therefore to jointly study for a selection of low- to middle-income countries the socioeconomic and demographic conditions of women aged 15–34 and their partners in relation to their household patterns with particular interest in the comparison of nuclear and extended households. The analysis will mainly rely on data from the Integrated Public Use of Microdata Series International database (https://international.ipums.org/international/) from which census samples for the last two or latest available census rounds for 18 countries have been extracted. Results showed that women being of older age (within the 15–34 range) and at the same time having attained at least primary school education, having a husband who does not work in the primary sector and who is neither much older nor much younger were all associated with living in a nuclear household. However, individual factors explained only a small part of the overall variation in the household arrangements of young couples, suggesting that differences between countries in these dimensions do not explain much of the difference in household structure. Rather, societal indicators like economic development and the average age at marriage – that were significant in our models – may explain better the overall slow transition towards the nuclear family.     

《民法典》医疗过失判定规则的再解读

《民法典》对医疗过失判定规则修改的幅度不大,基本继受了《侵权责任法》的规定。我国以往对医疗过失判定规则的解释存在一定的问题,具体表现在部分条文的解释难以形成共识和部分条文的解释结论欠妥。在对医疗过失判定规则进行解释时应对其解释路径进行科学定位,然后才能对医疗过失判定的具体的规则进行正确的解读。衡量医疗过失的标准是医疗水平标准,而不是诊疗规范标准。违反诊疗规范应推定有过失。衡量医疗水平应考虑诊疗规范因素、地域因素、资质因素。我国《民法典》对证明困境下医疗过失的判定作出了特殊规定,学界对伪造、篡改病历等行为与医疗过失的关系存在争议,这些行为的存在应推定有医疗过失,医疗机构可以进行反证。     

中国“高储蓄现象”的部门分析:1952～2008

本文测算了1952～2008年中国居民、政府与企业三部门的储蓄率并分析了各部门储蓄率的变化及其原因。本文的研究发现:(1)经历了一个较长的下降周期后政府储蓄率在国民储蓄中的地位已经居于居民储蓄与企业储蓄之后。政府储蓄率的下降一方面源自政府在国民收入中的比重下降,另一方面源自政府储蓄倾向降低,这与市场化改革导致的国民收入分配结构变化与政府的职能变化密切相连。(2)上世纪80年代中期后随着企业体制改革的深化,预算软约束逐步硬化,买方市场逐步形成,企业的效益有了明显改善,企业可支配收入在国民可支配收入中所占比重加大,因而企业储蓄在国民储蓄中的比重不断提高。(3)改革开放后,居民收入迅速增长与储蓄倾向上升推动中国居民储蓄率走高。企业与居民储蓄率的上升是中国储蓄在高位持续的原因。     

我国户籍制度的法理分析与平等权宪政保护机制构建

我国户籍制度已日显其弊病,它侵害公民的人格尊严,违背平等、自由、公正的宪法理念,应当站在宪政的高度对其进行改革：还原户籍的原初功能,消除制度性歧视,完善宪法对平等权利体系的规定,承认平等权作为公民的一种权利对立法者有拘束力,建立宪政审查机制,从而体现对人的价值、人的尊严、人的自由和平等的终极关怀,使立法更趋公平,使社会更加公正。