Gaiatsu and Japan's Foreign Aid: Rethinking theReactive–Proactive Debate

This article examines the role of the United States in Japan's foreign aid policy. The Japanese government often alters its course of action under U.S. pressure even if doing so would apparently undermine its own interests. Japan's unusual responsiveness to U.S. preferences appears counterintuitive given the fact that at least in the realm of foreign aid Japan's power clearly surpassed that of the United States. This article posits that Japan's responsiveness stems in large part from the asymmetry of interdependence between the two countries. After critically reviewing the existing literature, it conducts two case studies to examine the validity of the argument. The article concludes that the United States played a crucial role but Japan's responsiveness to American pressure reflects an act of will rather than a lack of coherent policy stemming from bureaucratic politics. The findings have important implications to the ongoing debate over whether Japan is a "reactive state."     

Where do norms come from? Foundations of Japan's postwar pacifism

Constructivists have advanced the study of Japanese nationalsecurity policy by illuminating how normative factors shapestate behavior. At the same time, they have overemphasized therole norms and ideas play while downplaying the structural andmaterial forces that often underlie normative factors. Thisarticle seeks to reveal the political foundations of Japanesepostwar pacifism. It maintains that explanations based on normsand identities cannot be separated from discussion on materialand structural factors when it comes to the question of wherenorms come from and why they are sustained. Power and interestsmay not explain everything, but they often account for why certainnorms emerge and are sustained to influence policy. By examiningthe shifts in public opinions and the Social Democratic Party'sdefense policy, this article argues that Japan's postwar pacifismhas been possible in large part because peace was relativelyabundant in postwar Japan and that the majority of the Japanesefelt that the alliance with the United States contributed tothat effect.