The Problematic Relation between Direct Democracy and Accountability in Latin America: Evidence from the Bolivian Case

During the wave of constitutional reforms, which started in the late 1980s, Institutions of Direct Democracy (IDD) have been incorporated into most Latin American constitutions, and over the past fifteen years, an increased use of these instruments by Latin American governments has been observed. This article deals with two questions related to this phenomenon: (1) what motivated the adoption and use of these institutions; and (2) what consequences can be expected with regard to democratic accountability in the region? To answer these questions, first, a classification of IDD is developed. In this, special attention is paid to the ability of the various types of IDD to introduce accountability into the representative structures of presidential systems. This classification is subsequently applied to analyse constitutional frameworks and direct democratic experience in the region. The findings suggest that the rise of IDD in Latin America was mainly induced by executive‐legislative conflict and has done little to foster accountability. Finally, therefore, a detailed account of the specific constellation that led to the adoption of IDD in Bolivia is analysed in order to illustrate under which circumstances political actors choose to adopt and employ these tools.     

Racing to the bottom: international trade without a social clause

Linking trade concessions to compliance with internationally recognised labour standards is referred to as a ‘social clause’. The social clause is usually depicted as causing division between the (rich) global North and the less-industrialised global South. This article shows, however, that there is diversity of opinion among the labour movements of the global South and that contemporary labour-intensive manufacturing pits countries of the South against one another. The article raises the possibility of a race to the bottom in labour standards, where workers cannot enjoy the fruits of growth because their employers and governments hold on to the competitive advantage of cheap labour. Consider competition between China and Mexico for the North American apparel market: despite enormous employment growth apparel workers have not enjoyed wage growth and their conditions are often appalling. The race to the bottom can be prevented by South–South agreement to honour labour standards.     

TRANSITION OR TRANSFORMATION? -ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY UNDER THATCHER

The degree of fundamental change or continuity in environmental policy under the Thatcher governments since 1979 is explored in terms of three functional areas of policy-making. The impact of Thatcherite ideology has been strongest in the development function. Deregulation has weakened the role of strategic land use planning. A strong central state allied to a free market has enabled primacy to be given to the promotion of private sector development. Compromise has been characteristic of the conservation function where the Government has had to arbitrate between its farming and rural preservationist constituencies at a time when the rural economy has shifted from an emphasis on food production to the problem of surplus. International concerns about transboundary pollution and EEC environmental directives have constrained the Government's freedom of action in the ecological function of policy. Overall, environmental policy shows a mixture of transformation where ideology is strong and pragmatism where political and structural constraints ensure the longer term continuity of policy.     

Learning at the Edges: Participatory Action Research and Child Maltreatment in Post‐War Guatemala

This article focuses on the effect of Participatory Action Research (PAR) on changing parents’ disciplinary practices and galvanising community organisation in Guatemala City. The article analyses PAR with reference to Carr and Kemmis’s threefold typology. The project involved a transition from a technical model, in which participant actors investigate a subject proposed by the lead researcher, through a practical stage, in which participants and lead researcher interact on an equal basis, to participant‐led action that has a critical intent.     

SOCIAL CLASS AS A FACTOR AFFECTING JUDICIAL DISPOSITION Defendants Charged with Criminal Homosexual Acts

This article examines the proposition that criminal defendants from lower social classes receive more severe judicial disposition than do criminal defendants from hgher social classes Evidence from cases involving prosecution for felonious homosexual acts does not lend much support to the proposition that there is social class bias in judicial disposition of criminal cases. Several models are discussed which might be used to orient future research into how courts handle criminal cases.     

A STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION OF MISDEMEANOR COURT DISPOSITION PATTERNS*

The utility of structural criminology in explaining societal reaction to criminal events is examined in an analysis of misdemeanor court cases processed in an urban southern jurisdiction. The analysis employs a relational measure of class to discern distinctions in disposition patterns for misdemeanors classified by type of complaining party. Logistic regression is used to consider the influence of a variety of procedural/legal and extralegal variables in predicting case dispositions for individual, corporate, and victimless cases. Results indicate partial support for the premises of structural theory, and the discussion focuses on how the context of criminal court processing may be conditioned by varying degrees of control between victim and offender.