The suitability of using domestic pigs (Sus spp.) as human proxies in the geophysical detection of clandestine graves

Research in many forensic science fields commonly uses domestic pigs (Sus spp.) as proxies for human remains, due to their physiological and anatomical similarities, as well as being more readily available. Unfortunately, previous research, especially that which compares the decompositional process, has shown that pigs are not appropriate proxies for humans. To date, there has not been any published research that specifically addresses whether domestic pigs are adequate human proxies for the geophysical detection of clandestine graves. As such, the aim of this paper was to compare the geophysical responses of pig cadavers and human donor graves, in order to determine if pigs can indeed be used as adequate human proxies. To accomplish this, ground penetrating radar (GPR) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) responses on single and multiple pig cadaver graves were compared to single and multiple human donor graves, all of which are in known locations within the same geological environment. The results showed that under field conditions, both GPR and ERT were successful at observing human and pig burials, with no obvious differences between the detected geophysical responses. The results also showed that there were no differences in the geophysical responses of those who were clothed and unclothed. The similarity of the responses may reflect that the geophysical techniques can detect graves despite what their contents are. The study implications suggest that experimental studies in other soil and climate conditions can be easily replicated, benefiting law enforcement with missing persons cases.     

The market for social norms

This article presents a semirigorous model in which a new normarises out of the workings of a market for norms. Change istriggered by a shift in either cost-benefit conditions or groupcomposition. Because individuals are heterogeneous in importantrespects, they respond differently to these triggering events.The first persons to supply new norms generally are individualswho have either superior technical knowledge of cost-benefitconditions, superior social knowledge of group dynamics, orspecial endowments that provide them with unusually high tangiblebenefits from norm reform. Members of the social audience observethe competing efforts of these norm suppliers and reward themost meritorious ones by conferring on them either esteem or,according to an alternative conception, new exchange opportunities.Under optimal conditions, members of the audience - key participantsin the demand side of the market for norms - do not free-ridebecause they incur no net costs when conferring their rewards.