Consensus and direct democracy: Conceptual and empirical linkages

The first part of this paper draws a number of theoretical connections between various forms of direct democracy and the two types of democracy outlined by Lijphart. Plebiscites and mandatory referendums without quorums of consent are shown to correspond to majoritarian forms of democracy, whilst optional referendums and initiatives with quorums of consent are shown to share similarities with power–sharing forms. The second part of the paper offers an empirical analysis of the different use of citizen–initiated referendums (optional referendums and initiatives) in Switzerland's consensual systems (i.e., cantons) by examining to what extent the various elements of power–sharing are developed. It is argued that referendums and initiatives are used less frequently when government coalitions have greater strength and local autonomy is more developed.