公共健康和强制许可制度

TRIPS协定将传统的专利保护客体扩大到所有技术领域的任何发明,将医药产品及方法纳入了专利保护的范围,以致受专利保护的药品价格大幅上扬,在一些国家尤其是发展中国家和不发达国家产生健康危机。本文试图在分析《多哈宣言》及其《执行决议》中关于强制许可制度规定的基础上,提出我国可将其作为解决公共健康危机的基本途径。     

药品试验数据专有权与药品专利权冲突之研究——从药品可及性角度谈起

《TRIPS协定》下药品试验数据专有权为新药的申请提供排他性专有权保护,一定程度上起到类似专利权独占市场保护权的作用,其与药品专利权存在天然的冲突。如何正确解读《TRIPS协定》下对药品试验数据专有权的保护及如何协调其与专利权的冲突,对药品可及性及实现《多哈宣言》所倡导的为实现公共健康目的的精神有着重要的现实意义。     

Trips下中国适用强制许可制度分析

我国是发展中大国,人口众多,公共健康问题始终是关系国计民生的重要问题之一。在Trips框架下,通过的《TRIPS协议与公共健康多哈宣言》和《关于实施TRIPS协议与公共健康的多哈宣言第6段的决议》对我国的药品专利实施制度带来了很大影响,也对我国的药品生产行业带来了很多影响。本文从《多哈宣言》和《实施多哈宣言的决定》出发,在归纳出我国存在的问题后,通过比较和数据分析,从中国的医药产业现状和公共健康服务的实际考虑,我国适用强制许可制度的做法。     

TRIPS新一轮谈判及知识产权国际保护的新发展

根据2001年11月14日通过的《多哈部长宣言》、《关于TRIPS协定与公共健康的部长宣言》、《关于与实施有关的问题和关注的决定》的授权,TRIPS理事会已经自2002年初启动了TRIPS协定新一轮谈判。在世界贸易组织第4届部长级会议《部长宣言》(即《多哈部长宣言》)第17～19条中,具体提出WTO新一轮谈判所关注的问题:“与贸易有关的知识产权17.我们通过促进对现有药品的获得和对新药的研究与开发,强调我们对以支持公众健康的方式实施和解释《与贸易有关的知识产权协定》(《TRIPS协定》)的重要性。为此,我们通过了一份单独的宣言。18.为完…     

超《TRIPS协定》条款对药品专利强制许可的变异及应对策略

签署双边自由贸易协定是后《TRIPS协定》时代美国、欧盟等发达国家提高知识产权保护标准的又一举措,由此所产生的超《TRIPS协定》条款使得药品专利强制许可制度被变异,难以实施.当药品试验数据专有权或药品专利链接制度对药品专利强制许可造成障碍时,立法上应明确其冲突解决方式,有利于避免今后我国的药品专利强制许可受到不利影响.     

美国自由贸易协定中药品TRIPS-Plus保护

制药业是TRIPS协议和TRIPS-Plus规则的幕后推手。在制药业的推动下,美国在自由贸易协定(FTA)中积极推行药品的TRIPS-Plus保护。它们以美国1984年《药品价格竞争与专利保护期恢复法案》为蓝本,向贸易伙伴推销专利保护期延长、数据专有权和专利链接制度。它们以各种形式出现在美国现已生效的20个FTA和每年度《特别301报告》中,并逐步为发展中国家所采纳,成为潜在的国际新标准,对药品获取和公共健康产生严重影响。发展中国家应采取合众连横策略,不仅要将TRIPS协议弹性条款和《多哈宣言》融入TRIPS-Plus规则,而且还要构建TRIPS-Plus规则自身的弹性条款。作为美国重要的贸易伙伴之一,我国不能漠视这一发展趋势。     

公共健康保护的主要争议评析

在多哈公共健康宣言通过后 ,没有药品生产能力或药品生产能力不足的WTO成员方如何利用TRIPS协定授予的强制许可机制解决公共健康危机是一个争议较大的问题 ,经过各成员方的努力 ,总理事会于 2 0 0 3年 8月通过了《关于实施多哈宣言第 6段的总理事会决议》(以下简称《总理事会决议》 ,对此做出回应 ,使得该争议告一段落。但这并未从根本上改变知识产权国际保护体制的不平等 ,发展中国家应继续采取和探寻有效措施应对现有的国际知识产权体制 ,以促进本国经济的发展。     

从《多哈宣言》到《总理事会决议》看国际知识产权保护

在多哈公共健康宣言通过后 ,没有药品生产能力或药品生产能力不足的WTO成员方如何利用TRIPS协定授予的强制许可机制解决公共健康危机是一个争议较大的问题 ,经过各成员方的努力 ,总理事会于 2 0 0 3年 8月通过了《关于实施多哈宣言第 6段的总理事会决议》(以下简称《总理事会决议》 ,对此做出回应 ,使得该争议告一段落。但这并未从根本上改变知识产权国际保护体制的不平等 ,发展中国家应继续采取和探寻有效措施应对现有的国际知识产权体制 ,以促进本国经济的发展。     

公共健康危机与发展中国家的知识产权战略

在多哈公共健康宣言通过后 ,没有药品生产能力或药品生产能力不足的WTO成员方如何利用TRIPS协定授予的强制许可机制解决公共健康危机是一个争议较大的问题 ,经过各成员方的努力 ,总理事会于 2 0 0 3年 8月通过了《关于实施多哈宣言第 6段的总理事会决议》(以下简称《总理事会决议》 ,对此做出回应 ,使得该争议告一段落。但这并未从根本上改变知识产权国际保护体制的不平等 ,发展中国家应继续采取和探寻有效措施应对现有的国际知识产权体制 ,以促进本国经济的发展。     

涉及公共健康问题的专利实施强制许可办法

第一条为了解决我国面临的公共健康问题,并帮助有关国家、地区解决其面临的公共健康问题,落实世界贸易组织多哈部长级会议《关于TRIPS协议与公共健康的宣言》(下称“多哈宣言”)和世界贸易组织总理事会《关于实施TRIPS协议与公共健康的多哈宣言第6段的决议》 (下称“总理事会决议”),根据《中华人民共和国专利法》(下称“专利法”),制定本办法。     

Bhartṛhari and Maṇḍana on Avidyā

The concept of avidyā is one of the central categories in the Advaita of Śaṇkara and Maṇḍana. Shifting the focus from māyā, interpreted either as illusion or as the divine power, this concept brings ignorance to the forefront in describing duality and bondage. Although all Advaitins accept avidyā as a category, its scope and nature is interpreted in multiple ways. Key elements in Maṇḍana’s philosophy include the plurality of avidyā, individual selves as its substrate and the Brahman as its field (viṣaya), and the distinction in avidyā between non-apprehension and misapprehension. A closer investigation shows that Maṇḍana is directly influenced by Bhartṛhari’s linguistic non-dualism in developing the concept of avidyā. This study also compares other key constituents such as vivartta and pariṇāma that are relevant to the analysis of avidyā. As the concept of counter-image (pratibimba) emerges as a distinct stream of Advaita subsequent to Maṇḍana, this study also compares the application of pratibimba in the writings of Bhartṛhari and Maṇḍana.     

Unraveling the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Kāvyaprakāśa</Emphasis>: Jayadeva Pīyūṣavarṣa’s idiosyncratic sequence of topics in the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candrāloka</Emphasis>

In his twelfth century alaṃkāraśāstra, the Candrāloka, Jayadeva Pīyūṣavarṣa reverses the sequence of topics found in Mammaṭa’s Kāvyapr-akāśa, an earlier and immensely popular work. With such a structural revisionism, Jayadeva asserts the autonomy of his own work and puts forth an ambitious critique of earlier approaches to literary analysis. Jayadeva investigates the technical and aesthetic components of poetry in the first part of the Candrāloka, prior to his formal semantic investigations in the latter half of the text, thus suggesting that aesthetic evaluations of poetry beneficially inform scientific investigations of language. Jayadeva’s organization of his chapters on the semantic operations, moreover, intimates that the study of suggestive and metaphoric functions of language clarifies our understanding of denotation, which is conventionally understood to be the primary and direct path of verbal designation.     

Immigration,intermarriage and the changing face of Europe in the post war period

In this article we compare the propensity to intermarry of various migrant groups and their children who settled in Germany, France, England, Belgium and the Netherlands in the post-war period, using a wide range of available statistical data. We try to explain different intermarriage patterns within the framework of Alba and Nee's assimilation theory and pay special attention to the role of religion, colour and colonial background. We therefore compare colonial with non colonial migrants and within these categories between groups with ‘European’ (Christian) and non-European (Islam, Hinduism) religions. First of all, religion appears to be an important variable. Migrants whose faith has no tradition in Western Europe intermarry at a much lower rate than those whose religious backgrounds correspond with those that are common in the country of settlement. The rate of ethnic endogamous marriages in Western Europe are highest in Hindu and Muslim communities, often regardless if they came as guest workers or colonial migrants. Whereas differences in religion diminish the propensity to intermarry, colour or ‘racial’ differences on the other hand seem to be less important. This is largely explained by the pre-migration socialisation. Furthermore, the paper argues that the attention to institutions, as rightly advocated by Richard Alba and Victor Nee, needs a more refined and layered elaboration. Institutions, often as barriers to intermarriage, do not only emanate from the receiving society, but also—be it less formalized—within migrant communities. Especially religions and family systems, but also organized nationalist feelings, can have a profound influence on how migrants think about endogamy. Finally, strong pressures to assimilate, often through institutionalized forms of discrimination and stigmatization, not only produce isolation and frustrate assimilation (with resulting low intermarriage rates), but can also stimulate assimilation by 'passing' mechanisms. These factors, together with a more comparative perspective, are not completely ignored in the new assimilation theory, but—as this study of Western European intermarriage patterns stresses—deserve to be included more systematically in historical and social scientist analyses.     

The Supreme Array Scripture: A New Interpretation of the Title “Gaṇḍavyūha-sūtra”

This article argues for a new interpretation of the Sanskrit compound gaṇḍa-vyūha as it is used in the common title of the Mahāyāna text the Gaṇḍavyūha-Sūtra.The author begins by providing a brief history of the sūtra’s appellations in Chinese and Tibetan sources. Next, the meanings of gaṇḍa (the problematic member of the compound) are explored. The author proposes that contemporary scholars have overlooked a meaning of gaṇḍa occurring in some compounds, wherein gaṇḍa can mean simply “great,” “big” or “massive.” This general sense is particularly common in the compound gaṇda-śaila (a “massive rock” or “boulder”) and is found in such texts as the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, the Harivaṃśa and the Harṣacarita. Following the discussion of Gaṇḍa, the author examines the term vyūha (“array”) as it is used in the Gaṇḍavyūha-sūtra. The article concludes with the suggestion that a more appropriate translation of the Gaṇḍavyūha-sūtra would be “The Supreme array Scripture.”     

Evaluation of six presumptive tests for blood, their specificity, sensitivity, and effect on high molecular-weight DNA

Luminol, leuchomalachite green, phenolphthalein, Hemastix, Hemident, and Bluestar are all used as presumptive tests for blood. In this study, the tests were subjected to dilute blood (from 1:10,000 to 1:10,000,000), many common household substance, and chemicals. Samples were tested for DNA to determine whether the presumptive tests damaged or destroyed DNA. The DNA loci tested were D2S1338 and D19S433. Leuchomalachite green had a sensitivity of 1:10,000, while the remaining tests were able to detect blood to a dilution of 1:100,000. Substances tested include saliva, semen, potato, tomato, tomato sauce, tomato sauce with meat, red onion, red kidney bean, horseradish, 0.1 M ascorbic acid, 5% bleach, 10% cupric sulfate, 10% ferric sulfate, and 10% nickel chloride. Of all the substances tested, not one of the household items reacted with every test; however, the chemicals did. DNA was recovered and amplified from luminol, phenolphthalein, Hemastix, and Bluestar, but not from leuchomalachite green or Hemident.     

Illumination,Imagination, Creativity: Rājaśekhara,Kuntaka, and Jagannātha on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pratibhā</Emphasis>

Sanskrit poeticians make the visionary faculty of pratibhā a necessary part of the professional poet’s make-up. The term has a pre-history in Bhartṛhari’s linguistic metaphysics, where it is used to explain the unitary perception of meaning. This essay examines the relation between pratibhā and possible theories of the imagination, with a focus on three unusual theoreticians—Rājaśekhara, Kuntaka, and Jagannātha Paṇḍita. Rājaśekhara offers an analysis of pratibhā that is heavily interactive, requiring the discerning presence of the bhāvaka listener or critic; he also positions pratibhā in relation to Bildung (vyutpatti) and practice. For Kuntaka, pratibhā, never an ex nihilo creation by a poet, serves as the basis for the peculiar forms of intensified insight and experience that constitute poetry; these may also involve the creative scrambling and re-articulation of the object in terms of its systemic composition. At times, Kuntaka’s pratibhā comes close to a strong notion of imaginative process. But the full-fledged thematization of the imagination, and of pratibhā as its support and mechanism, is best seen in the seventeenth-century debates preserved for us by Jagannātha. A link is suggested between the discourse of poetic imagination in Jagannātha and similar themes that turn up in Indo-Persian poets such as Bedil.     

Preventing Homelessness for System‐Involved Youth

Too many youth and young adults find themselves on the streets, couch‐surfing with friends, in emergency shelters or worse, after exiting the child welfare and juvenile justice systems. In some circumstances, youth have had court hearings until their exit from the legal system, but those hearings have not focused on long‐range plans of youth and emergencies youth may encounter. In other circumstances, there has been little or no planning prior to discharge, especially for young people who leave the juvenile justice system. Courts can and should prevent, alleviate or end youth homelessness for youth who appear before them through strategies that are enumerated in the recently‐passed NCJFCJ resolution. This article expounds on three of these strategies – coordinating transition and re‐entry plans, insisting on effective legal representation of youth, and utilizing sound judicial leadership. It also describes the concurrent efforts of the Coalition for Juvenile Justice and the American Bar Association's Homeless Youth Legal Network to remove legal barriers and improve outcomes for youth and young adults experiencing homelessness.     

Best practices for structuring a family court parenting plan evaluation under the 2022 AFCC Guidelines

Evaluation appointment orders provide enforceable scaffolding for conduct of family court parenting plan evaluations, and use of the evaluator's reports, feedback, file, and testimony. Unlike a contract, a stipulated or adjudicated appointment order is directly enforceable by the family court. It unambiguously positions the evaluator as the family court's appointee – answerable directly to the court and, in some jurisdictions, protected by quasi-judicial immunity from damages claims. A well-crafted appointment order governs the roles and expectations of the court, the evaluator, the parties, the lawyers, and the collateral witnesses. An appointment order mandates the legal duties, rights, powers, and responsibilities of the professionals, the parties, and the collateral witnesses. At minimum, an appointment order articulates the legal basis for the appointment, the purpose and scope of the evaluation, compensation of evaluator, and the duty of the parties to participate in the process. A written evaluation protocol or procedures statement discloses in advance the methods of investigation and assessment that the evaluator intends to use. Together, the appointment order and written protocol help the evaluator, lawyers, parents, and judge manage the complexity of the evaluation process.     

Monks Who Have Sex: Pārājika Penance in Indian Buddhist Monasticisms

In the study of Buddhism it is commonly accepted that a monk or nun who commits a pārājika offence is permanently and irrevocably expelled from the Buddhist monastic order. This view is based primarily on readings of the Pāli Vinaya. With the exception of the Pāli Vinaya, however, all other extant Buddhist monastic law codes (Dharmaguptaka, Mahāsāṅghika, Mahīśāsaka, Sarvāstivāda and Mūlasarvāstivāda) contain detailed provisions for monks and nuns who commit pārājikas but nevertheless wish to remain within the saṅgha. These monastics are not expelled. Rather, they are granted a special status known as the śikṣādattaka. In this paper I explore the rules. concerning pārājika penance and the śikṣādattaka with specific regard to monastic celibacy. Given that five out of six extant law codes recognise this remarkable accommodation to the rule of celibacy, I argue that we must look to Vinayas other than the Pāli Vinaya if we are to arrive at a nuanced and representative view of Indian Buddhist monasticism.

Grant me chastity and continence, but not yet. Augustine of Hippo (354–430 C.E.)

     

What similes in Sāṃkhya do: a comparison of the similes in the Sāṃkhya texts in the Mahābhārata, the Sāṃkhyakārikā and the Sāṃkhyasūtra

In Sāṃkhya similes are an important means to communicate basic philosophical teachings. In the texts similes are frequently used, especially in the Sāṃkhya passages in the Mahābhārata, in the Sāṃkhyakārikā and in the Sāṃkhyasūtra. This paper compares the similes in these three texts and analyses changes in the philosophy as revealed in the similes. A comparison of the similes of Sāṃkhya texts produced over more than one thousand years reveals changes in the emphasis in this philosophical system. The purpose of the similes in the Sāṃkhya passages of the Mahābhārata is to produce an intuitive understanding of the separateness of puruṣa and prakṛti. The similes are designed to lead the listener to understand this basic dualism. In the Sāṃkhyakārikā the most difficult issues are the relationship between prakṛti and puruṣa and the idea of prakṛti working for the salvation of puruṣa. One whole chapter of the Sāṃkhyasūtra is devoted to similes.