美国判例法:商业秘密"使用"的判断与证明

美国判例法已经形成了商业秘密"使用"的成熟规则."直接使用"并非仅指原封不动地使用商业秘密.判断是否构成"间接使用"的核心要素是被告的产品或工艺等是否实质派生(或来源)于原告的商业秘密.以他人商业秘密加速自己的研发、将他人"消极的商业秘密"用于降低自己的研发成本、商业秘密对他人产品或工艺的贡献大小和被告投入的大小等都是判断是否实质派生的要素.在我国规则阙如之际,美国判例法所形成的这些成熟规则,可以为我国司法实践所借鉴.     

商业秘密侵权中的善意第三人责任浅析

一、善意第三人的含义辨析(一)善意第三人的含义在商业秘密的保护中,第一人是指商业秘密的所有人,第二人是指以不正当手段获取他人商业秘密或违背保密义务而披露、使用他人商业秘密者,第三人则是指从第二人处获得他人的商业秘密并加以使用或继续披露的人。根据其主观状态的不同,第三人又可分为恶意第三人和善意第三人。所谓恶意第三人,是指第三人明知或应知商业秘密系他人(第二人)以不正当手段获取或违     

论美国刑事诉讼中表达自由权与公正审判权的平衡

<美国联邦宪法>第一修正案和第六修正案分别规定了表达自由权和公正审判权.在刑事诉讼中,表达自由权与公正审判权之间存在着一定的矛盾和冲突.根据美国联邦最高法院限制表达自由权的双重标准,在公正审判权与表达自由权发生冲突时,为了保障被告人的公正审判权,可以对表达自由权作必要的限制.当表达自由权与公正审判权的冲突达到何种程度时才能对表达自由权进行限制,是美国司法实践中关注的焦点.在刑事诉讼中,表达自由权的主体包括裁判者、诉讼参与人、媒体和一般民众.在美国联邦系统对于如何处理法官、律师、媒体和一般民众的表达自由权与被告人的公正审判权之间的关系,已经形成了统一的规则;但是对于如何处理陪审员、当事人、证人和旁听者的表达自由权与被告人的公正审判权之间的关系,至今还没有形成统一的规则.     

美国庭审直播录播的历史发展与改革实验

在美国,媒体有一项"获知刑事审判信息"的权利,该权利由宪法第1修正案(关于言论自由权)确立并通过第14修正案(正当程序权利)运用于联邦。但是这一权利并不意味着法官无权对那些法庭内或者法庭周围的媒体代表的行为进行限制。在美国历史上,法官也担心媒体作用影响公正审判而使公众对审判失去信心。早在1935年理查德(Richard Bruno Hauptmann)一案中,由于前所未有的媒体作用,公众开始     

限制与审查:美国《数字千年版权法》的宪法命运

版权人采取的技术措施限制了作品的传播,与表达自由产生了紧张关系.美国版权法与宪法第一修正案之间的冲突导致在诉讼中版权法经常面临宪法审查的命运.美国《数字千年版权法》(DMCA)规定的规避技术措施涉及的计算机程序是第一修正案中的言论,应受表达自由的保护.DMCA中的“主要”、“实质性”等措辞不属于过度宽泛、模糊笼统而违宪的情形.DMCA是内容中立的法律,适用中度审查标准,没有违反宪法第一修正案.宪法审查中凸显了第三人对被审查对象的看法.我国有必要开创替代性制度,以保障知识产权制度的理性发展.     

美国宪法第八修正案"残酷和异常的刑罚"之含义

美国宪法第八修正案"不得‘施加残酷和异常的刑罚’"条款并非是1787年美国宪法的内容,而是1791年十条修正案的内容之一,其直接来源于英国的法律。在废除死刑运动日益高涨的美国,如何理解"残酷和异常的刑罚"呢?本文以此为基础,详细介绍了第八修正案的通过、渊源和内容之含义。     

美国打击色情物品犯罪的司法实践及困境

美国联邦最高法院从1957年开始掀起审查色情案件的高潮,形成了一系列先例,确立了"硬核色情物品"和"儿童色情物品"不受宪法第一修正案保护的原则.但是美国社会,尤其是联邦最高法院的大法官们对色情物品的危害、淫秽物品的标准以及色情物品受不受宪法第一修正案的保护等问题一直争论不休,导致色情物品泛滥成灾.     

宪法解释的文本主义——以"哥伦比亚特区诉赫勒"案为例

文本主义是美国宪法学界重要的宪法解释理论,其核心是在解释宪法时追求宪法文本的客观意义。斯卡利亚是文本主义的代表人物,他在"哥伦比亚特区诉赫勒"案中对美国宪法第二修正案进行了文本主义的解释。     

美国法律中政府对私人财产的“征收”和补偿

美国法律中的"征收"既是一个财产法的问题.也是一个宪法的问题。从宪法角度看,征收所依据的是政府享有的政府征收权(eminent domain),它和完法所保护的公民对其私有财产的所有权之间是相互冲突的。如何解决这种冲突是美国财产法的重要内容。在完法层面上,美国法律对私有财产涉及两方面的规定:一方面是对私有财产给予宪法的保护,这主要体现在美国宪法第五修正案中的"正当程序条款"(Due Process Clause),即任何人的生命、自由和财产未经正当程序不得被剥夺;而另一方面,美国宪法第五修正案的"征收条款"(TakingsClause)规定,政府在给予公平的补偿(just compensation)的情况下,为公共使用的目的有权力征收私有财产。实施征收行为的可以是各级政府,在某种限定的情况下,也可以是行使公共或政府职责的私人公司。     

美国最高法院"隐私的合理期待"标准之介评

美国宪法第四修正案保护公民不受政府不合理的搜查和扣押的权利.美国最高法院在卡兹诉美国案中,提出了"隐私的合理期待"标准,界定了第四修正案下搜查的含义,并通过公共暴露理论、风险承担理论等学说,阐释了该标准的主、客观要件.美国最高法院确立的理论与判例表明,第四修正案下的隐私权的内涵缺乏自治权和人格权的维度.此种狭义的隐私权也是美国最高法院支持"反毒战争"刑事政策的体现.     

Drugs in injured drivers in Denmark

As part of the project Impaired Motorists, Methods of Roadside Testing and Assessment for Licensing (IMMORTAL) under the European Commission's Transport RTD Programme of the 5th Framework Programme [I.M. Bernhoft, Drugs in accidents involved drivers in Denmark, D-R4.3 of the project Impaired Motorists, Methods Of Roadside Testing and Assessment for Licensing (IMMORTAL), www.immortal.or.at, 2005], a study regarding drugs in accident-involved drivers was carried out in Denmark. The main objectives of this study were: (1) to collect and analyse samples from injured drivers for the presence of drugs; (2) to give an indication whether drugs may have contributed to traffic accidents; and (3) to get information on the drug-positive drivers and their drug use. This paper focuses on objective 1. Injured drivers who were treated in hospital were asked to give a saliva sample, a blood sample or both. The samples were screened for the following substances: opiates, amphetamines, methamphetamines, incl. MDMA (ecstasy), cannabinoids and metabolites, cocaine and metabolites and benzodiazepines. Screenings were carried out by means of Cozart Microplate EIA kit. Positive screenings were confirmation analysed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) or liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS). In total, 26 out of 330 patients were confirmed positive for one or more of the six drug groups. However, three patients were excluded from the survey for various reasons. Of the remaining 23 drug-positive patients 15 were found positive for one drug group, and in five of these cases alcohol was present in a concentration over the legal limit in Denmark (0.05%). The other eight patients were found positive for two drug groups, and in four of these cases, alcohol was also present in a concentration over the legal limit. Alcohol was found both in combinations with medicinal drugs, with illegal drugs and with both. Based on the saliva or blood concentrations, we estimate that there is a strong suspicion of impairment in 9 out of 23 cases, and in another six cases it was likely that the drivers were impaired.     

Fatal poisoning in drug addicts in the Nordic countries in 2007

The frequency of medico-legally examined fatal poisonings in 2007 among drug addicts was investigated in five Nordic countries; Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. The number of deaths, age, sex, place of death, main intoxicant, and other drugs present in blood samples were recorded to obtain national and comparable Nordic data, as well as data to compare with earlier studies in 2002, 1997, and 1991. Norway had the highest incidence of drug addict deaths by poisoning followed by Denmark, with 8.24 and 6.92 per 100,000 inhabitants, respectively. The death rates in Finland (4.02), Iceland (4.56), and Sweden (3.53) were about half that of Norway and Denmark. Compared with earlier studies, the death rates were unchanged in Denmark and Norway, but increased in Finland, Iceland, and Sweden. In all countries, fewer deaths (29-35%) were recorded in the capital area compared with earlier studies. Females accounted for 11-19% of the fatal poisonings. Iceland deviates with a more equal distribution between men and women (40%). Deaths from methadone overdoses increased in all Nordic countries, and methadone was the main intoxicant in Denmark in 2007, accounting for 51% of the poisonings. In Norway and Sweden, heroin/morphine was still the main intoxicant with a frequency of 68% and 48%, respectively. In Iceland, 3 deaths each were due to heroin/morphine and methadone, respectively. Finland differs from other Nordic countries in having a high number of poisonings caused by buprenorphine and very few caused by heroin/morphine. The total number of buprenorphine deaths in Finland doubled from 16 in 2002 to 32 in 2007, where it constituted 25% of deaths. The general toxicological screening program showed widespread multi-drug use in all countries. The median number of drugs per case varied from 3 to 5. The most frequently detected substances were heroin/morphine, methadone, buprenorphine, tramadol, amphetamine, cocaine, tetrahydrocannabinol, benzodiazepines and ethanol.     

2008年中国法治亮点巡礼

2008年，是中国法治进程稳步推进和稳健发展的一年，也是法治亮点频频闪现的一年。2008年的立法景观依然多姿多彩，科学立法、民主立法继续推进，公民对立法工作的有序参与进一步扩大，已出台的十一届全国人大常委会立法规划值得人们期待。此外，实施不久的《政府信息公开条例》、全面开展的监狱体制改革，以及此起彼伏的问责风暴等都是值得我们关注的法治亮点。     

Trustees in Cyprus regulated in 2007

Trust and company service providers in Cyprus are followingin the footsteps of their European counterparts and will toobe regulated at the beginning of 2007.     

Differences in female and male involvement in lethal violence in Russia

Relatively little is known of the distributions of homicide event characteristics in non-Western nations in which women relative to men are involved. This article utilizes unique homicide narratives drawn from Russian court and police records to compare homicide victim, offender, and event characteristics by sex of victim and separately by sex of offender. Results from logistic regression show that homicides in which a female was the victim or offender were more likely to occur between intimates and to occur in the home, whereas homicides involving males were more likely to occur in a public place, to be alcohol-related, to involve a firearm, and to involve a victim and offender who did not know each other well. These results not only present an important first glimpse at women as homicide victims and offenders in Russia specifically, but also provide a point of comparison with findings from similar analyses undertaken in the West, and present further initial observations upon which to construct a cohesive theory about female involvement in serious violent events.     

Trends in Non-Muslim Divorces in Singapore

This article examines the trends and patterns in the way thesecular divorce law has been utilized by couples in Singaporeseeking to end their marriage. Social and demographic featuresof the divorcing couples, as well as the ‘fact’relied on in support of their divorce petitions, are studiedand compared to earlier analyses. It is found that while somepatterns observed by earlier researchers have remained intact,others have changed. This article suggests explanations forthese observed patterns and contributes to the discussion onwhether and how the divorce law can be improved in Singaporeand elsewhere.     

Competence in caring in legal practice

This article is concerned with the stories of female solicitors working in Queensland, Australia, and their account of ethics in practice. These narratives were sought and made in the context of our project investigating complaints received against practitioners in this jurisdiction. Our interviews with female lawyers were intended to provide more insight into complaints matters. Yet this discussion revealed broader insights into ethical questions about the nature of lawyer–client relationships and legal professionalism. This article considers these accounts by reflecting on the concept of ‘care’ and its fit with legal practice requirements today. In doing so, we consider the difficult gendered question of the relationship between caring and ‘women's’ practice. We do not assert a true woman's working style; we seek to contextualise our empirical research by tracing the complex effect of gender on lawyering roles. Finally, we suggest that the adoption of caring practice is a valid approach to lawyering and call for a caring approach to be re-valued in the legal professional context as an ethical proposition.