Stature reconstruction using fragmentary femora in South Africans of European descent

It is well documented that the intact femur has the highest correlation with stature and as such has been widely used in the derivation of regression equations for stature estimation. As intact femur is not always present for analyses in forensic cases, it has become necessary to derive regression equations for the estimation of stature from fragments of this bone. Few studies have presented regression equations for stature estimation from fragments of the femur. Because these equations are population specific, it was the aim of this study to derive similar equations for estimation of stature and maximum length of femur from measurements of the femur of South Africans of European descent. A sample of 50 male and 50 female complete skeletons were obtained from the Raymond A. Dart Collection of Human Skeletons. Total skeletal height for each of the skeletons was calculated using the Fully's method. Six variables were measured on each femur which included the vertical neck diameter, upper breadth of femur, epicondylar breadth, bicondylar breadth, lateral condyle length, and medial condyle length. Regression equations for the estimation of stature are presented. The range of standard error of estimate for these equations (3.71-5.31) was slightly higher than those obtained for intact long bones (2.13-3.79). It is therefore suggested that in the absence of intact femur, regression equations derived from the present study can provide a reliable estimate of adult stature.     

Stature Estimation from Postmortem CT Femoral Maximum Length in Contemporary Danish Population

Stature estimation methods for Danish adult population have generally relied on Trotter and Gleser’s and Boldsen’s regression equations that are based on the skeletal remains of recent war dead American Whites, Terry Skeletal Collection, and Danish archaeological medieval skeletal materials, respectively. These equations are probably not suitable for stature estimation in contemporary Danish forensic cases. Furthermore, because postmortem computed tomography (PMCT) is now routinely performed at Danish forensic departments, equations based on PMCT, rather than measurements of defleshed bones, are needed. The aim of this study was to develop new equations for adult stature estimation based on PMCT femoral measurement. Maximum femoral length was measured on the PMCT images of 78 individuals (41 males and 37 females) aged 23–45 years. The measurement accuracy was tested on dry bones, and all the measurements were included in the inter- and intra-observer analyses. Both analyses results demonstrated the reliability of the method and data. Comparison between the living stature of the individuals and the estimates based on the equations by Trotter and Gleser and Boldsen demonstrated the unreliability of the previous equations to some extent. New regression equations were then developed and validated on a different sample of 18 Danish forensic cases. Comparisons of all the equations indicated that both the sets of previous equations underestimated the stature in the new validation dataset. The new equations developed in this study provide a reliable alternative for stature estimation in modern Danish forensic cases.     

Stature estimation of 3-10-year-old children from long bone lengths

Estimation of stature in adult forensic cases with available long bones of the limbs is routine, but such estimation is less common in subadult cases. Long bones from subadult cases are often used to estimate age, but in some instances stature may be helpful or even critical for identification. Few published regression equations exist for consultation in such cases. Data from the longitudinal growth study conducted by the Child Research Council in Denver in the mid-1900s are utilized to produce dual-sex and single-sex regression equations for the six long bones of the limbs (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, and fibula) and for the combined femur+tibia length. All measurements are from radiographs and are of diaphyseal length. Examples show that similar results can be obtained using a two-step process of "ballpark" estimation from published tables of the Denver data, but these new regressions allow a one-step standard error estimate for the means. Regressions are further compared with those previously published by Finnish researchers, which are generally broadly comparable. More routine stature estimation in subadult cases is encouraged both as an aid to possible identification and as a test of the available regression equations.     

X线摄影测量活体胫腓骨长度推算身高

目的应用计算机X线摄影（computer radiography,CR）测量活体胫腓骨长度,建立适合当代中国北方汉族人群胫腓骨长度推算身高的数学模型。方法在422例（男性207例．女性215例）活体山东汉族成年人的胫腓骨正位CR片上测量5项长度指标,同时测量其身高。通过各项测量指标与身高的线性回归分析、线性回归模型假设检验的方差分析以及偏回归系数的t检验．建立运用胫腓骨长度推算身高的回归方程;并对所建立的方程进行身高预测值与真实值的配对t检验、残差分析等方程的预测与诊断。结果共建立有统计学意义的一元回归方程35个一所建立的回归方程的相关系数在0．909～0．823范围内．回归方程的估计值标准误在2．48～3．87cm范围结论应用CR放射学方法测量胫腓骨长度推算身高．可以为法医学个人识别身高推算提供帮助,建立的回归方程适用于中国北方汉族人群胫腓骨的身高推算。     

Stature estimation based on dimensions of the bony pelvis and proximal femur

Pelin et al. recently showed that sacral height measured on lateral magnetic resonance images can be used with moderate accuracy to reconstruct stature in males. In most forensic anthropological cases, however, sacral dimensions must be obtained from dry bones. In this study, the relationship between stature and sacral height, hip height, and femur head diameter measured on dry bone was evaluated for American Blacks and Whites of both sexes (n = 247). There are significant correlation between stature and these three dimensions, but the results suggest that none of the dimensions predict stature with the accuracy needed to be useful in forensic anthropological investigations.     

Using tibia fragments from South Africans of European descent to estimate maximum tibia length and stature

Intact long limb bones have been used in the derivation of regression equations for stature assessment in different population groups. Since intact long bones are not always present for analyses in forensic cases, it has become necessary to derive regression equations for the estimation of stature from the fragments of these bones which are obtained in forensic and archaeological cases. Regression equations have been derived for stature estimation from fragments of the tibia. Since these equations are population specific, it was the aim of this study to derive similar equations for estimation of stature and maximum tibia length from measurements of different fragments of tibia of South Africans of European descent. Analyses were based on a sample of 50 male and 50 female complete skeletons of adult South Africans of European descent. Total skeletal height for the individual skeletons was measured using the Fully's (anatomical) method. Six variables were measured on the tibia which included the medial tibial condyle lengths and breadths, lateral tibial condyle lengths and breadths, proximal breadth and distal breadth. Univariate and multivariate regression equations were formulated for estimation of total skeletal height (and subsequent estimation of living stature) and maximum tibial length from measurements of the tibia. The standard errors of estimate for the equations were higher than those obtained for intact long bones which when present in forensic cases should be used for stature estimation. In the absence of intact long bones, the equations derived from the present study can provide a reliable estimate of skeletal height and living stature.     

Determination of stature from skeletal and skull measurements by CT scan evaluation

The aim of this article is to find a correlation between height and femur/skull measurements through Computed Tomography (CT) scans and derive regression equations for total skeletal height estimation in the Caucasian population. We selected 200 Caucasian patients from March 2010 to July 2011 who had to perform a CT scan for cancer restaging. The mean age is 64.5 years. Both sexes are represented by the same number of persons. Patients have executed a total body CT scan with contrast; once scan accomplished, we measured height through a digital scales. We analyzed CT scans of each patient, obtaining multiplanar reconstruction in sagittal and coronal planes with 1mm of thickness, and we measured 10 diameters of skull and femur. Then we performed a single and a multiple regression analysis considering the three diameters that better correlated with height. The skeletal diameters with the highest correlation coefficients with stature were femur lengths, length of cranial base (Ba-N), and distance from the posterior extremity of the cranial base to the inferior point of the nasal bone (Ba-NB). Although both femur and skull are skeletal segments used for stature estimation, in our sample femur gave stronger correlation with height than skull. h=35.7+1.48·BaN+2.32·BaNB+2.53·FEM and h=3.06·FEM+72.6 are the formulae that provided the most accurate stature assessment using multiple and single regression analysis respectively.     

Stature estimation from fragmentary femora: a revision of the Steele method

The skeletal remains presented to forensic anthropologists are often fragmentary. Previously described methods of estimating stature from segments of long bones have not proved satisfactory because of the difficulty involved in identifying the precise anatomical landmarks by which they are defined. This study represents an assessment of the feasibility of stature estimation from fragmentary femora. A sample of 200 males and females, blacks and whites (total sample = 800), was obtained from the Terry Collection. New regression equations for the estimation of maximum femur length and stature from three well-defined and easy-to-measure segments of the femur are presented. This technique represents an improvement over methods currently in use for estimating stature from femur fragments; the location of the anatomical landmarks and the accuracy of the prediction are enhanced. The applicability of these formulae to a modern forensic sample is addressed with regard to secular trends in stature increase and changes in body segment proportions.     

数字X线摄影测量活体脊柱胸段推算身高

目的建立人脊柱胸段长度推算身高的方法。方法应用数字X线摄影技术（DR）摄制514例中国四川汉族人群的胸部DR片，测其脊柱胸段长度，同时准确测量被研究者身高，对测量获得的脊柱胸段长度与身高数据分组进行线性回归分析，建立胸段长度推算身高的回归方程。结果建立了混合组、男性组、女性组、20—45岁男性组、大于45岁男性组、20～45岁女性组和大于45岁女性组7个回归方程，经显著性检验，均有统计学意义（P〈0．01），复相关系数（R）范围0．834～0．624，回归系数（b）范围0．259～0．389，回归方程估计值的标准误在3．88～4．72cm范围内。结论利用人类脊柱胸段长度推算身高的方法在法医学个人识别中具有重要价值。     

Evaluation of Stature Estimation from the Database for Forensic Anthropology*†

Abstract: Trotter and Gleser’s ( 1 - 3 ) stature equations, conventionally used to estimate stature, are not appropriate to use in the modern forensic context. In this study, stature is assessed with a modern (birth years after 1944) American sample (N = 242) derived from the National Institute of Justice Database for Forensic Anthropology in the United States and the Forensic Anthropology Databank. New stature formulae have been calculated using forensic stature (FSTAT) and a combined dataset of forensic, cadaver, and measured statures referred to as Any Stature (ASTAT). The new FSTAT‐based equations had an improved accuracy in Blacks with little improvement over Ousley’s ( 4 ) equations for Whites. ASTAT‐based equations performed equal to those of FSTAT equations and may be more appropriate, because they reflect both the variation in reported statures and in cadaver statures. It is essential to use not only equations based on forensic statures, but also equations based on modern samples.     

New formulae for estimating stature in the Balkans

Recent studies of secular change and allometry have observed differential limb proportions between the sexes, among and within populations. These studies suggest that stature prediction formulae developed from American Whites may be inappropriate for European populations. The purpose of this investigation is to present more appropriate stature prediction equations for use in the Balkans to aid present-day identifications of the victims of genocide. The reference sample totals 545 white males obtained from World War II data. The Eastern European sample totals 177 males and includes both Bosnian and Croatian victims of the recent war. Mean stature for Eastern Europeans was obtained from the literature. Results show that formulae based on Trotter and Gleser systematically underestimate stature in the Balkans. Because Eastern Europeans are taller than American Whites it is appropriate to use this as an "informative prior" that can be applied to future cases. This informative prior can be used in predictive formulae, since it is probably similar to the sample from which the Balkan forensic cases were drawn. Based on Bayes' Theorem new predictive stature formulae are presented for Eastern Europeans.     

A Procedure for Calculating the Vertical Space Height of the Sacrum When Determining Skeletal Height for Use in the Anatomical Method of Adult Stature Estimation

Estimating stature from skeletonized remains is one of the essential parameters in the development of a biological profile. A new procedure for determining skeletal height (SKH) incorporating the vertical space height (VSH) from the anterior margin of the sacral promontory to the superior margins of the acetabulae for use in the anatomical method of stature estimation is introduced. Regression equations for stature estimation were generated from measurements of 38 American males of European ancestry from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection. The modification to the procedure results in a SKH that is highly correlated with stature (r = 0.925–0.948). Stature estimates have low standard errors of the estimate ranging from 21.79 to 25.95 mm, biases from to 0.50 to 0.94 mm, and accuracy rates from 17.71 mm to 19.45 mm. The procedure for determining the VSH, which replaces “S1 height” in traditional anatomical method models, is a key improvement to the method.     

放射影像学方法测量活体女性颈椎推算身高

目的测量颈椎高度建立四川汉族女性人群的身高推算方程，为法医学个人识别提供帮助。方法应用计算机X线摄影放射学方法，在209例四川汉族女性颈椎CR片上测量C3～C7椎体高度，并准确测量身高。按年龄是否大于45岁进行分组，对各颈椎的测量数据与身高进行线性回归分析，建立颈椎推算身高的回归方程。结果共建立一元回归方程36个，多元回归方程12个，所有回归方程经线性回归模型假设检验，均有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。所建立的回归方程的复相关系数（r）在0．628～0．280范围内，回归方程的标准误在4．03～5．03cm范围内。结论本研究所建立的回归方程，可用于四川汉族女性颈椎的身高推算。     

回归法推断手印和足迹与身高和体重的关系

目的探讨身高、体重与足迹、手印长宽的关系。方法通过足迹、手印的捺印和测量,大量地收集样本足迹、手印与身高、体重等数据,借助SPSS数理统计软件,进行一元线性回归分析。结果分别建立了由左右足迹、手印全长、掌宽推算身高与体重的10个一元线性回归方程,并对依据各个指标分别推算结果的可靠性进行比较研究。结论本研究建立的回归方程可用于山东地区部分人群的身高与体重推算;依据足迹较依据手印推算身高体重结果更可靠;在左右两侧足迹、手印都可利用的情况下,推断身高时应优先选用右侧;推断体重时应优先选用左侧。     

Stature estimation from tibia percutaneous length: New equations derived from a Mediterranean population

Stature is a fundamental anthropometric character to trace the biological profile of a person. In some cases, when dismembered or mutilated bodies are discovered in a forensic context, it is essential to estimate stature from single districts of the body. Nevertheless, to date and worldwide, there are only few population-specific studies on stature estimation from leg length and none of them concerns modern populations in southern Europe. We attempted to fill this gap, focusing on the estimation of stature from the length of the tibia in a Mediterranean population (Italians). We carried out the current study on a sample of 374 Italian university students of both sexes (age range: 19.9–34.4). Both, actual stature and percutaneous length of tibia were measured and new equations were developed for stature estimation. We tested separate regression equations for each sex, as well as an equation for remains, whose sex is unknown. To assess their reliability, the equations were tested on a holdout sample of 30 individuals from the same population. Moreover, results of new specific linear regression equations were compared to others from the literature. We demonstrated that the newly proposed formulae (for males and combined sexes) and the ones by Olivier (for females) provided the most reliable estimations of stature for southern Europeans.     

应用锁骨薄层CT容积重建影像推算四川汉族身高

目的探讨锁骨薄层CT三维容积重建影像(CT-VRT)在身高推算中的应用价值,以期更新我国西南地区身高推算数据,为鉴定实践提供技术支撑。方法应用300例锁骨薄层CT-VRT影像,测量并计算左侧锁骨长(LCL)、右侧锁骨长(RCL)、双侧锁骨均长(ACL),分析身高与LCL、RCL、ACL相关性及性别差异,建立身高推算线性回归方程,并对所建模型进行回代检验。结果男性、女性ACL和身高的相关系数分别为0.534、0.707;LCL和身高的相关系数分别为0.484、0.680;RCL和身高的相关系数分别为0.523、0.695。分别建立ACL、LCL、RCL男女性身高推算线性回归模型。回代检验示ACL方程男性身高推算平均绝对误差(MAD)为4.48cm,女性MAD为3.51cm;LCL方程男性身高推算MAD为4.60cm,女性MAD为3.64cm;RCL方程男性身高推算MAD为4.49cm,女性MAD为3.59cm。结论建立的推算身高的回归方程具有统计学意义,模型预测精度较高,表明利用薄层CT-VRT影像测量的锁骨可运用于四川汉族人群身高推算研究。但模型R2较小,因此在应用ACL进行身高推算时最好结合其他指标。     

Sexual dimorphism in America: geometric morphometric analysis of the craniofacial region

One of the four pillars of the anthropological protocol is the estimation of sex. The protocol generally consists of linear metric analysis or visually assessing individual skeletal traits on the skull and pelvis based on an ordinal scale of 1-5, ranging from very masculine to very feminine. The morphologic traits are then some how averaged by the investigator to estimate sex. Some skulls may be misclassified because of apparent morphologic features that appear more or less robust due to size differences among individuals. The question of misclassification may be further exemplified in light of comparisons across populations that may differ not only in cranial robusticity but also in stature and general physique. The purpose of this study is to further examine the effect of size and sex on craniofacial shape among American populations to better understand the allometric foundation of skeletal traits currently used for sex estimation. Three-dimensional coordinates of 16 standard craniofacial landmarks were collected using a Microscribe-3DX digitizer. Data were collected for 118 American White and Black males and females from the W.M. Bass Donated Collection and the Forensic Data Bank. The MANCOVA procedure tested shape differences as a function of sex and size. Sex had a significant influence on shape for both American Whites (F = 2.90; d.f. = 19, 39; p > F = 0.0024) and Blacks (F = 2.81; d.f. = 19, 37; p > F = 0.0035), whereas size did not have a significant influence on shape in either Whites (F = 1.69; d.f. = 19, 39; p > F = 0.08) or Blacks (F = 1.09; d.f. = 19, 37; p > F = 0.40). Therefore, for each sex, individuals of various sizes were statistically the same shape. In other words, while significant differences were present between the size of males and females (males on average were larger), there was no size effect beyond that accounted for by sex differences in size. Moreover, the consistency between American groups is interesting as it suggests that population differences in sexual dimorphism may result more from human variation in size than allometric variation in craniofacial morphology.     

Body height estimation based on dimensions of sacral and coccygeal vertebrae

This study is to evaluate whether it is possible to predict living stature from sacral and coccygeal vertebral dimensions. Individual vertebral body heights, sacral height (SH), and sacrococcygeal height (SCH) were recorded from the magnetic resonance images of 42 adult males. Sum of the heights of five sacral vertebrae (sigmaS), the first four coccygeal vertebrae (sigmaC), and the total height of the sacral and the first four coccygeal vertebrae together (sigmaSC) were also recorded. Linear regression equations for stature estimation were produced using the above mentioned variables. The regression equations were constructed and tested by using jack-knife procedure. Statistical analyses indicated that the combined variables (SH, SCH, sigmaS, sigmaC, sigmaSC) were more accurate predictors of stature than the heights of individual vertebrae. The results of the study pointed out that the equations derived from sacrococcygeal dimensions perform somewhat better than ones based on foot and head variables, but worse than those based on long-bone length. As a conclusion, the dimensions of sacral and coccygeal vertebrae could be used for stature estimation when long bones are not available.     

Estimation of stature from foot length and foot breadth among the Rajbanshi: an indigenous population of North Bengal

In forensic anthropology, estimation of stature from feet dimensions plays a significant role in establishing personal identity. There is a scarcity of literature on the estimation of stature from foot length and foot breadth among various Indian populations, including the indigenous populations found in the northern part of the state of West Bengal, India. The Rajbanshis and the Meches are two such indigenous populations. The present study is an attempt to understand the relationship between stature and feet dimensions among Rajbanshi male and female individuals of North Bengal, India. Measurements of stature, foot length and foot breadth were recorded from 350 adult Rajbanshi and 100 adult Meche individuals (age range: 18-50 years) residing in different villages located in the Darjeeling District of West Bengal. The Technical Error of Measurements was within the accepted limits. The results of the present study indicate that female Rajbanshi individuals exhibit shorter stature and smaller feet than their male counterparts. Using ANOVA, it is determined that there was significant differences (p<0.05) in stature, foot length and foot breadth between sexes. Using paired t-test, it is further observed that bilateral variation was significant (p<0.05) within sexes with respect to foot length, but not with foot breadth (p>0.05). Stature, foot length and foot breadth are positively and significantly correlated with each other (p<0.01). The higher correlation coefficient between stature and foot length over that of stature and foot breadth points to the fact that foot length, rather than foot breadth, is more accurate in estimating stature. Sexual dimorphism is more pronounced than bilateral differences among Rajbanshi individuals. Using linear regression, it is observed that stature was strongly dependent on foot length and foot breadth. Foot breadth is strongly dependent on foot length. Prediction of stature is more accurate by using step-wise multiple regression. Age does not have a significant effect on stature estimation. The equations obtained for the Rajbanshis were fitted on the Meches to check whether the same equations could be utilized for both these indigenous communities. The equations obtained for another Indian population from the literature were also fitted and tested on the Rajbanshi. It may be concluded that the present study has provided equations to estimate stature from the feet dimensions among the Rajbanshis. It would be unwise to use the same equations for stature estimation for different Indian populations.     

A Test of Three Methods for Estimating Stature from Immature Skeletal Remains Using Long Bone Lengths*

Abstract: In this study, the accuracy of three methods for stature estimation of children from long bone lengths was investigated. The sample utilized consists of nine identified immature skeletons (seven males and two females) of known cadaver length, aged between 1 and 14 years old. Results show that stature (cadaver length) is consistently underestimated by all three methods (from a minimum of 2.9 cm to a maximum of 19.3 cm). The femur/stature ratio provided the least accurate estimates of stature, and predictions were not significantly improved by the other two methods. Differences between true and estimated stature were also greatest when using the length of lower limb bones. Given that the study sample children grew in less than optimal environmental conditions, compared with the children that contributed to the development of the methods, they are stunted and have proportionally shorter legs. This suggests that stature estimation methods are not universally applicable and that environmental differences within a population (e.g., socioeconomic status differences) or differing levels of modernization and social and economic development between nations are an important source of variation in stature and body proportions of children. The fallibility of stature estimation methods, when they do not consider such variation, can be somewhat minimized if stature is estimated from the length of upper limb bones.