Narcotics at street level in Denmark. A prospective investigation from 1995 to 2000

This article describes an investigation of illicit drugs at street level in six selected police districts in different regions of Denmark. The investigation was carried out during a 6-year period from 1995 to 2000. During the period, a total of 1244 samples were examined, as about 200 samples were seized each year. A total of 94% of the seized samples were familiar drugs: heroin base, heroin hydrochloride, cocaine hydrochloride and amphetamine sulphate. Only 2% of the samples contained designer drugs. From having constituted 53% of the samples in 1995, the frequency of heroin base fell during the period to 27% of the samples in 2000. The frequency of heroin hydrochloride was unchanged. In the same period, the frequency of cocaine hydrochloride increased from 10% of the samples in 1995 to about 25% of the samples in 2000. Apart from a few exceptions, cocaine had the same extension in all regions of Denmark after 1996. Amphetamine was more frequent in the west of Denmark, while heroin hydrochloride was more frequent in central Denmark. The purity of heroin base was lower in the period 1997-1999 than in the other years. During the entire period, the purity of cocaine hydrochloride and amphetamine sulphate fell, while the purity of heroin hydrochloride was unchanged. No significant differences between the various regions of Denmark were detected during the period in the purity of heroin hydrochloride, heroin base, cocaine hydrochloride or amphetamine sulphate. MDMA was the most frequent designer drug, but other types of designer drugs such as MDA and MDE and the less common PMA, PMMA and MBDB were also found.     

Drug abuse in western Denmark during the eighties. II. Fatal poisonings among drug abusers.

Cases of fatal poisoning among drug addicts (n = 246) and abusers of medical drugs (n = 138) are discussed on the basis of the availability of illicit and medical drugs during the eighties. Propoxyphene was frequently the cause of death among both drug addicts and abusers of medical drugs. Deaths caused by analgesics and psychoactive drugs, mainly barbiturates and antidepressants, predominated among abusers of medical drugs. During the late eighties the number of deaths caused by barbiturates and propoxyphene declined as a result of changes in the distribution regulations for both drugs. Heroin/morphine accounted for only one-third of the poisonings in drug addicts. No trends concerning the prevalence of deaths caused by these drugs were observed throughout the decade. The number of deaths caused by the synthetic opiates methadone and ketobemidone, however, increased during the late eighties, probably due to an increased availability of these drugs in the illicit drug market. Alcohol was detected in half of all the poisoning cases and benzodiazepines in one-third.     

The clandestine drug laboratory situation in the United States

Clandestine, or illegal, laboratories are operated by the criminal element to circumvent legal requirements with the goal of supplying drugs of abuse to the illicit market. Investigation of clandestine drug manufacturing laboratories is a high priority of the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) because elimination of these laboratories will prevent drugs of abuse from reaching the illicit drug traffic. One of the important responsibilities of forensic chemists assisting in investigations of clandestine drug laboratories is to be familiar with the methods of synthesis being used by clandestine laboratory operators. A review of clandestine laboratory seizures during the period of 1978 through 1981 will be provided to familiarize forensic chemists with current information on the types of laboratories being seized in the United States and the methods of synthesis being used.     

Ion mobility spectrometry of drugs of abuse in customs scenarios: concentration and temperature study.

A custom-built ion mobility spectrometer has been used to obtain the IMS spectra of cocaine, heroin, amphetamine sulfate and LSD at different drug concentrations and desorption temperatures. Practical detection limits for these four drugs were obtained as a function of desorber temperature and for heroin as a function of analysis time. Spectral and ionization interferences for each of the four drugs of interest were determined. Spectral interferences by innocuous materials are few; ionization interferences occur only at very high ratios of the mass of innocuous material to that of the drug of interest.     

Trace elemental analysis of drugs of abuse using synchrotron radiation total reflection X-ray fluorescence analysis (SR-TXRF)

Synchrotron radiation total reflection X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (SR-TXRF) was utilized to analyze various trace elements in small amounts of drugs of abuse. Sample amounts of 1 microL solutions containing 10 microg of drugs (methamphetamine, amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, cocaine, and heroin) were spotted on silicon wafers for direct analysis. In addition, a leaflet of marijuana was set directly on a silicon wafer, and opium in the form of a soft lump was smeared on another silicon wafer for analysis. In these experiments, about 10 pg of contaminant elements could be detected. For example, in a seized methamphetamine sample, iodine was found, which could be indicative of synthetic route. In seized 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine samples, variable amounts of phosphorus, calcium, sulfur, and potassium were found, which could not be detected in a control 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine sample. For marijuana and opium, two spectral patterns were obtained that were far different from each other and could be easily discriminated. Using SR-TXRF, pg amounts of each trace element in 10 microg of various drugs can be easily detected, which is not the case either for a standard TXRF experimental system or for other elemental analysis techniques.     

Drug abuse in Denmark (Jutland and Funen). A forensic study based upon drugs seized in 1982-1987

Two thousand fifty-three samples submitted to forensic chemical analysis during the period 1982-1987 were characterized according to their content of narcotics and the year of seizure. Heroin and cannabis dominated the material, but a significant decrease in the number of heroin samples was observed in 1987. Amphetamine, on the contrary, hardly seen during the period 1982-1984, accounted for half of the narcotics submitted in 1987. The misuse of morphine, especially in the form of poppy capsules, was a problem for some years, whereas cocaine has not yet been a drug of abuse in Denmark. The mean concentrations of the heroin and the amphetamine samples were 30% and 44%, respectively, both for retail drugs and the entire material.     

Heroin Overdose Deaths and Heroin Purity Between 1990 and 2000 in Istanbul,Turkey*

Abstract: Turkey has continuously experienced problems with abuse of, and addiction to, opium derivatives. In this study, we analyzed the relationship between heroin overdose deaths and the characteristics of seized opium derivatives. Data were gathered from the Council of Forensic Medicine of the Ministry of Justice in Istanbul from 1990 to 2000. There were 636 heroin‐related deaths during this period, 595 of which were classified as heroin overdose deaths. Mean crude and weighted heroin purities remained relatively constant and were calculated to be 46% (57–34%) and 51% (39–59%), respectively. The weight of heroin and the number of heroin seizures, but not the heroin purity, were significantly associated with the number of heroin‐related deaths. Prevention strategies are needed to reduce the number of deaths caused by overdoses in countries situated on drug trafficking routes. These strategies should focus on drug trafficking, by providing increased levels of, and support for, law enforcement, stopping the supply of precursor chemicals, and combating corruption among border officials.     

Psychoactive substances in seriously injured drivers in Denmark

This study assesses the presence of a number of psychoactive substances, including alcohol, based on blood samples from 840 seriously injured drivers admitted to five selected hospitals located in five different regions of Denmark. The study was a part of the EU 6th framework program DRUID (Driving Under the Influence of Drugs, Alcohol and Medicines). Blood samples were screened for 30 illegal and legal psychoactive substances and metabolites as well as ethanol. Danish legal limits were used to evaluate the frequency of drivers violating the Danish legislation while limit of quantification (LOQ) was used for monitoring positive drivers. Tramadol is not included in the Danish legislation therefore the general cut off, as decided in the DRUID project was used. Overall, ethanol (18%) was the most frequently identified compound (alone or in combination with other drugs) exceeding the legal limit, which is 0.53 g/l in Denmark. The percentage of seriously injured drivers testing positive for medicinal drugs at levels above the Danish legal limit was 6.8%. Benzodiazepines and Z-drugs (6.4%) comprised the majority of this group. One or more illegal drugs (primarily amphetamines and cannabis) were found to be above the Danish legal limit in 4.9% of injured drivers. Young men (median age 31 years) were over-represented among injured drivers who violated Danish law for alcohol and drugs.Diazepam (4.4%), tramadol (3.2%), and clonazepam (3.0%) were the medicinal drugs most frequently detected at levels above LOQ, whereas amphetamines (5.4%) (amphetamine [5.2%] and methamphetamine [1.5%]), tetrahydrocannabinol (3.7%), and cocaine (3.3%), including the metabolite benzoylecgonine, were the most frequently detected illegal drugs. A driver could be positive for more than one substance; therefore, percentages are not mutually exclusive. Poly-drug use was observed in 112 (13%) seriously injured drivers. Tramadol was detected above DRUID cutoffs in 2.1% of seriously injured drivers. This is 3.5 times that observed in a Danish survey of randomly selected drivers. Moreover, illegal and medicinal drug levels above the Danish legal limit were present more than 10 times as frequently as in injured drivers, whereas ethanol was present more than 30 times as frequently than in randomly selected drivers. The results indicate that there is an increased risk in traffic when driving under the influence of psychoactive drugs, especially alcohol in young male drivers.     

Applications of a transportable Raman spectrometer for the in situ detection of controlled substances at border controls

A transportable Raman spectrometer was tested for the detection of illicit drugs seized during border controls. In a first step, the analysis methodology was optimized using reference substances such as diacetylmorphine (heroin), cocaine and amphetamine (as powder or liquid forms). Adequate focalisation distance and times of analysis, influence of daylight and artificial light sources, repeatability and limits of detection were studied. In a second step, the applications and limitations of the technique to detect the illicit substances in different mixtures and containers were evaluated. Transportable Raman spectroscopy was found to be adequate for a rapid screen of liquids and powders for the detection and identification of controlled substances. Additionally, it had the advantage over other portable techniques, such as ion mobility spectrometry, of being non-destructive and capable of rapid analysis of large quantities of substances through containers such as plastic bags and glass bottles.     

Detection of Brodifacoum and other Rodenticides in Drug Mixtures using Thermal Desorption Direct Analysis in Real Time Mass Spectrometry (TD‐DART‐MS)

In recent months, there has been increased reporting of seized drug and toxicology cases containing rodenticides, the active ingredient in rat poisons. Seeing as rodenticides are not scheduled substances, they are not commonly screened for in seized drug analysis. This work investigates the use of TD‐DART‐MS for the simultaneous detection of rodenticides and drugs. Six rodenticides were evaluated, an optimal method was established, and limits of detection in the tens of nanograms were calculated. Additional studies highlight that detection at less than 1% by weight in mixtures with AB‐FUBINACA, cocaine, heroin, or methamphetamine was possible. This work presents an optimized method for detection of these compounds, allowing for the simultaneous detection of drugs and rodenticides, providing drug chemists with a tool for rapid identification of these compounds for forensic or public health purposes.     

Flunitrazepam: an evaluation of use, abuse and toxicity.

The benzodiazepine flunitrazepam is extensively prescribed to patients with insomnia in many countries, but has also become popular among alcohol- and drug abusers. Several reports indicate that it is used as a date rape drug and suggest that it may precipitate violent behavior. Furthermore, flunitrazepam is involved in many fatal intoxications in Sweden. This study was designed and conducted to explore the negative consequences of flunitrazepam abuse in Sweden, and to assess the trends in its use and abuse. The occurrence of flunitrazepam in cases referred to the Department of Forensic Chemistry in Link?ping, Sweden 1992-1998, was investigated in detail. The detections were studied separately for different groups; medicolegal death investigations, drug abuse cases, driving under influence cases, and other medicolegal cases. These data were further compared with the sales, and seizures by the Swedish Customs and the Swedish Police. During 1992-1998, 641 fatalities occurred, where the cause of death was attributed to intoxication with flunitrazepam solely (130) or in combination with other drugs, or concomitant conditions (511). In 78% of all driving under influence cases, where flunitrazepam was detected, the analyses also disclosed the presence of illicit drugs. A similar association was seen in drug abuse cases. The seizures reported by the Swedish Customs revealed a substantial and increasing illegal trade. Cases, where flunitrazepam seemingly induced violent behavior were identified, and one of these is described in some detail. It is concluded that the abuse pattern and the toxicity of flunitrazepam should be kept in mind by forensic investigators and that this panorama also should be considered when decisions about the registration and classification of flunitrazepam are made in different countries.     

New designer drug of abuse: 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Findings from apprehended drivers in Finland

Starting in 2008 a new designer drug, 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) appeared among users of illegal drugs in Finland. Since then there have been several seizures of MDPV by police and customs and it has been connected to many crimes of different types. In this study the incidence and impact of the use of MDPV in drivers suspected of being under the influence of drugs (DUID) in Finland was assessed. Since autumn 2009, blood samples from drivers suspected of DUID in Finland have been analysed for the presence of MDPV. A new LC-MS/MS method for the determination of MDPV in serum was established. In order to assess the impact of MDPV on driving performance, drug and alcohol findings of positive MDPV cases were compared with data from the clinical examination carried out while the suspect was under arrest. In a period of one year there were 259 positive MDPV cases from apprehended drivers (5.7% of all confirmed DUID cases). In 80% of the cases in which MDPV was found, amphetamine was also present. Benzodiazepines were also frequently found together with MDPV, which was to be expected since in Finland, in our experience, stimulants are very often used together with benzodiazepines. In most cases it remained unclear whether the observed psycho-physical achievement deficiency was induced by MDPV because the concentrations of other drugs, especially other stimulants, were often high. However, in some subjects, MDPV, or MDPV in combination with other substances was the most probable cause of the impairment. The concentrations of MDPV varied from 0.016mg/L to over 8.000mg/L. Little is known about the pharmacology of MDPV. However, based on our findings it is clear that MDPV has a serious impact on traffic safety in Finland.     

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of seized street drug samples and identification of source

In this paper we describe the identification of constituents of the illicit drugs seized from different regions of eastern India by GC-MS. The constituents were identified to be heroin, acetyl morphine, morphine and acetyl codeine. Quantitative estimation of the constituents were made by GC-MS and HPTLC. In view of non-availability of the authentic samples of drugs of different origin, nothing positive can be said about the origin of illicit drug samples. The possibility of isotopic substitution, an important method for identification of source, was examined from the comparison of the intensity of different (ion) peaks 369 (heroin, m/z=369), 370, 371 and 372 using selective ion monitoring mode. No isotopic substitution in the constituents was observed. Attempts were made to identify the source of the illicit samples from heroin/acetylcodeine ratios in the way described in the literature.     

An overview of seized illegal wildlife entering the United States

The current study analyses seizures made at US ports of entry between 2003 and 2013, with the aim to identify concentrations of illegal wildlife imports into the United States. Findings show that 94% of species seized belong to six groups – mammals, molluscs, birds, reptiles, fish and coral – with mammals and reptiles making up more than half of all seizure incidents. Additionally, most seized wildlife is imported as leather products, medicinal products and as meat. The majority of seizures emanate from six countries, and illegal wildlife is primarily brought to the US via airline baggage. Temporal trends of wildlife seizures point to increases in the seizures of all groups of species, with the exception of birds. Based on these findings, we recommend using situational crime prevention techniques at US ports of entry to reduce opportunities that enable this trade.     

Blood levels of 3-methylfentanyl in 3 fatal poisoning cases

Three fatal poisoning cases due to 3-methylfentanyl are described. In each case, the death was accidental and occurred after injection of the opioid combined with amphetamine, heroin, or other drugs. The victims' ages, ranging from 30 to 41 years, were higher than those typically found in heroin poisonings in Finland. The blood concentrations of cis-3-methylfentanyl, measured here for the first time by a specific tandem mass spectrometric method, ranged from 0.3 to 0.9 microg/L (mean 0.5 microg/L). These values are significantly lower than the levels reported for alpha-methylfentanyl and fentanyl in fatal poisonings. Repeated seizures of fentanyl and its analogs have been reported in Europe close to the Russian border.     

Impurity profiling of methamphetamine hydrochloride drugs seized in the Philippines

Methamphetamine hydrochloride is one of the most widely used illicit drugs in the Philippines. In this study, we describe the application of cluster analysis of trace impurities in the profiling of the seized methamphetamine drug samples. Thirty milligrams of a homogenized drug sample were dissolved in 1 mL of pH 10.5 buffer solution and extracted with ethyl acetate containing three internal standards. The trace impurities were identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and quantified by gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID). Following previously reported methodologies, 30 impurity peaks were selected from the GC-FID chromatograms. The peak areas and retention times were referenced to the internal standards. The peak areas of the selected peaks were then grouped for cluster analysis. In order to check for consistency of clustering, two further cluster analyses were performed using 40 and 50 impurity peaks. Changes in clustering were observed in going from 30 to 40 impurity peaks, while analyses using 40 and 50 impurity peaks gave similar results. Thus, for the seized drug samples used in this study, cluster analysis using at least 40 impurity peaks showed better consistency of clustering as compared to analysis using 30 peaks only. Ten of the impurity peaks were identified, of which four were identified for the first time in methamphetamine drug samples. These are p-bromotoluene, N-benzyl amphetamine, N-ethyl amphetamine, and N-ethyl methamphetamine. The presence of phenyl-2-propanone (P2P), N,N-dimethyl amphetamine, and N-formyl amphetamine is indicative that these casework samples were synthesized using the Leuckart method.     

Changes in place of origin of heroin seized in Denmark from 1981 to 1986. "Chemical fingerprint" of 138 samples

Hundred thirty-eight samples of heroin weighing more than 0.1 g seized between 1981 and 1986 were characterized according to their contents of opium alkaloids, adulterants, and diluents together with their form and color. The "chemical fingerprint" was used to establish a change in the heroin during the period. As compared to the first few years covered by the survey, a predominant number of the samples at the end of the period were in the base form and contained the opium alkaloids papaverine and noscapine. In particular, the concentration of noscapine as related to the heroin content of each sample had increased considerably, indicating Pakistan or Iran as being the places of origin of most of the heroin seized in Denmark at the end of the period.     

GC法和GC/MS法在地区毒品情报分析中的应用

目的探讨气相色谱法(GC)和气相色谱/质谱联用法(GC/MS)在地区毒品情报分析中的应用,并用于实际样品分析。方法采用GC/MS法定性分析毒品样品中的主成分、痕量杂质、掺假剂和稀释剂,并选择GC/FID法和内标标准曲线法定量分析上述各组分,通过定性和定量数据的统计和分析,推断该地区的毒品状况。结果用GC/MS定性分析、GC/FID定量分析,和数据的统计比对,获得了某省某年27起海洛因毒品大案样品主成分、痕量杂质、掺假剂和稀释剂组成及含量的特征,发现该省缴获的大宗海洛因毒品主要以掺假和稀释后的产品出现,且咖啡因和扑热息痛为两种主要的掺假剂和稀释剂。结论GC/MS和GC/FID法在地区毒品情报分析和打击毒品犯罪中可以发挥重要作用。     

Profiling of illicit fentanyl using UHPLC-MS/MS

Methodology is presented for the profiling of fentanyl in seized drugs using ultra high performance liquid chromatography in combination with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Target analysis was performed for 40 fentanyl processing impurities, several of which are markers for a specific synthetic route (Siegfried or Janssen). For the separation of these solutes, an Acquity BEH C18 1.7 μm particle column (150 mm × 2.1 mm) with a binary 1% formic acid (pH 2.0)/acetonitrile gradient was used. For MS/MS detection, an atmospheric pressure positive electrospray source was employed with selected reaction monitoring (SRM). The coupling of the high separation power of UHPLC with the highly selective and sensitive detection of MS/MS is amenable to the determination of synthetic route and linking of drug seizures. The technology is also applicable to exhibits containing trace levels of fentanyl in the presence of significantly excess amounts of heroin and/or adulterants.