试述早期英格兰国王司法管辖权的扩张

早期英格兰国王司法管辖权的扩张是我们进一步了解早期英格兰国王法院体系建立、法律职业阶层兴起乃至普通法形成的前提和基础。本文将早期英格兰国王司法管辖权的扩张首先放进中世纪封建主义的框架进行分析,得出其"分散性"、"多元性"的根源所在。进而通过对英格兰盎格鲁—撒克逊时期、诺曼王朝时期和亨利二世时期的历史描述,具体指明国王司法管辖权扩张的理论基础、具体措施及其意义。     

法学之最

普通法的最早形成普通法是英国法律的主要渊源，集中体现了英国法律的特征。它是封建社会初期在盎格鲁人和撒克逊习惯法的基础上发展起来的。公元5世纪，日耳曼族人中的盎格鲁人和撒克逊人渡海统治了英伦三岛，英国由此从适用罗马法改为用盎格鲁·撒克逊习惯法。由于各地区习惯不同，语言不一，盎格鲁·撒克逊法具有极大的分散性。1066年诺曼底公爵威廉征服英国后，为了适应统治的需要，从御前会议中分设了王室法院，并实行巡回审判制度。王室法院派往各地的巡回法官，在审判案件过程中，除根据国王敕令外，主要根据该地习惯，因而巡回审判…     

英国盎格鲁—撒克逊时代对杀人和伤害行为的法律规制——以古代中国为参照

人类早期的法律最能体现民族的本性,也最能揭示其法律传统的特色。通过对盎格鲁—撒克逊时代杀人和伤害行为法律规制的考察,兼与历史发展同期的中国法相对照,我们发现,盎格鲁—撒克逊社会主要认可民间解决问题的方法,肯定"私力救济",反映了当时英格兰国家权力因素还没有占据了绝对上峰,社会成员享有较多的"个人自治"空间。中国采取的是自上而下命令式的解决途径,明显带有压迫性,从而扼制了人民权利与自由意识的发展。     

英国宪政传统的历史成因

英国早在盎格鲁 -撒克逊时代就滋生了“王在法下”的法治传统和政治协商传统的最初萌芽。诺曼征服后 ,在强大王权和贵族联合势力大致平衡的力量对比条件下 ,封建法历史地充当了推动法治传统成长的“不自觉工具”。随后形成的普通法以其特有的判例法形式、相对独立的法庭组织、司法职业化以及富有理性的审判方法 ,进一步巩固了英国法治传统的制度基础。与此同时 ,古代的政治协商传统发展到了具有一定代议性质的政治协商新阶段。到中世纪末 ,以普通法制度和议会制度为支柱的宪政传统在英国确立起来。总而言之 ,促成英国宪政传统形成的根本原因还在于国家和社会的适度紧张关系与相对均衡结构。     

陪审制度的产生

一般认为，原始的陪审制度最早出现于古希腊，古希腊没有法官，一般由公民组成陪审法庭审理案件并做出裁决。在国外，关于陪审制的历史渊源还有别的说法，有的认为，陪审制度源于盎格鲁--撒克逊时代，有的则认为是受到斯堪的纳维亚人的影响而建立。根据英国著名法律史学家梅特兰的观点，英国的陪审制起源于欧洲大陆法兰克王国时期的宣誓调查法。那时，当王室土地出现争议时，国王就会派出官员到当地就地进行调查。到达当地后，官员就从当地选择一部分居民组成陪审团，让他们经宣誓后就争议问题作出裁决。当时，宣示调查法应该说是国王用以保护自身利益的一种特权工具，除他以外的人若想使用，还必须取得国王恩准。1066年，随着诺曼征服的脚步，这一习惯也被带进了英国。这一观点得到了大多数国外学者的赞同。     

论保守主义对英国渐进式法律发展的影响

源于盎格鲁一撒克逊时代的英国法律制度表现出了惊人的历史连续性和稳定性。它很少受突发事件或革命的影响而被迫停顿或急剧变化。此外，它还经受住了几次法律危机：在漫长的中世纪，在与罗马教廷的斗争中，英国法成功抵制了教会法对世俗法的全。     

中世纪英格兰的巡回审判:背景、制度以及变迁——兼论我国巡回审判制度的构建

巡回审判制度起源于中世纪的英格兰,可分为总巡回审判(general eyre)和委任巡回审判(assize)两类。巡回审判的产生发展与英格兰在中世纪的政治传统和诺曼制度息息相关,诺曼征服使盎格鲁-撒克逊传统王权和诺曼底封建制度相结合,国家治理模式体现出一种"个人王权"的特点。随着社会发展,在亨利一世时,个人王权开始向行政王权转变,总巡回法庭兴起,负担起原本主要由国王个人承担的国家治理功能,统揽地方治理工作。由于中央官僚体系的进一步发展,总巡回审的司法、财政、监察等职能慢慢被剥离出去,最终走向消亡。而专注于司法职能,更加灵活、专业的委任巡回审判则脱颖而出,一直延续到现代。巡回审判在英国具有原生性的特点,分析这一制度在英格兰的源起与发展能帮助我们更好地理解其价值所在,为我国巡回审判制度的构建提供借鉴。     

英国普通法的令状制度

<正> 普通法是以诉讼为中心的法律,当事人如何通过法律途径获得救济,是法律的核心问题。这种救济方法制度就是英国普通法的令状制度(the writ system),或称为诉讼格式制度(the form of action system)。普通法的权利完全依赖于相应的诉讼程序,程序优先于权利是普通法区别于大陆法最显著的特征,同时,也表现了普通法的严格形式主义特征。普通法是王室法院程序救济措施发展的产物。正如梅因所说;"在法院产生初期,程序法异常强大,以至实体法起初仿佛悄然渐长于诉讼程序的缝隙之中。" 因此,把握英国令状制度的特点,是深入理解英国法律特征,特别是民事诉讼程序的关键。本文就令状和普通法的关系及令状本身的发展作初步的探讨。一、普通法与令状普通法与令状之间的关系,实质上就是王室法院与令状的关系。普通法是由王室法院适用令状而产生的判例组成的,王室法院管辖权的扩大,适用令状数目增多,普通法便得到了进一步的发展和壮大。令状起源于盎格鲁·撒克逊时期,是盎格鲁·撒克逊诸君主的重大创建。诺曼人征服英国之后,继承和     

司法审判权与政治统治权两权分立理论的“知识考古”及其合理性评说——以英格兰“中世纪宪政主义难题”为线索

<正>一、布拉克顿所引发的英格兰"中世纪宪政主义难题"布拉克顿(Bracton)作为13世纪中叶英格兰著名的法律人,对英格兰法律与宪政发展起到非常重要的作用。他的名言"国王不应服从任何人,但应服从于上帝和法律",〔1〕成为17世纪英国对抗专制王权的有力注脚。然而,美国学者麦基文却在布拉克顿著作中发现了两段相互矛盾的论述,并称其为英格兰"中世纪宪政主义的难题"。〔2〕     

论中世纪英国妇女的社会地位及其变化

妇女地位是一个国家或时代文明程度的标志。总的来说,在中世纪前半期,英国妇女无论在理论上、生活中还是法律上都处于卑微的地位,相对于盎格鲁撒克逊时期有了明显的下降,但16世纪的经济发展和宗教改革一定程度上提高了妇女尤其是妻子在精神上和家庭生活中的地位,不过仍然没有改变其在经济、社会中的法律地位,妻子在家庭生活中地位的上升并没有经济基础和法律支撑。     

19世纪英国大学法律教育的开展

法律教育是培养法律人才的重要途径,而法律教育机制是随着社会发展而不断调整和变革的。工业革命后英国社会发展对法律教育提出了现实需求,在新的历史条件下,英国以伦敦大学为代表的新大学和以牛津与剑桥为代表的古老大学都加入到法律教育的事业中来,使得英国法律教育体制从中世纪以律师会馆为主体的学徒制——经验型法律教育逐渐发展到以大学和法律职业组织分工合作的现代学院制法律教育,英国法律教育体制实现了从传统到现代的转型。     

民国时期的“人身保护法”

民国时期 ,中国模仿英美人身保护令制度 ,先后制定了《保护状条例》和《提审法》。它们的产生 ,从观念意识到立法技术都为中国的人身自由及其保障奠定了最初的基础。由于政治环境不允许 ,更由于缺乏相应的法文化土壤 ,这两个法并没有产生实际效用 ,中国也没有因此形成英美那样的制度。而其中深藏的问题 ,仍是当今中国人所应该思考和解决的。     

海牙-维斯比规则的一年诉讼时效是否适用无单放货

从海牙/海牙-维斯比规则的强制法律效力入手,通过对规则第三条第6款"一年诉讼时效"含义的解读,结合英国、美国、澳大利亚及中国香港无单放货的相关判例,探讨规则强制法律效力的终止时间,以及第三条第6款的不足之处,冀对新近联合国国际贸易法委员会和国际海商法协会共同制定的《运输法草案》(或称《鹿特丹规则》(草案))有所裨益。     

State, Citizen, and Character in French Criminal Process

This paper charts some major differences in the way in which evidence of the defendant's character is treated in France when compared with practice in England and Wales. Such evidence is more pervasive and visible (especially in the most serious cases) and its relevance is more broadly defined. Further, its presentation is shaped by a developed and positive conception of the French citizen. In part, these differences may be explained by differences in procedural tradition: the unitary trial structure in France, the dominance of fact—finding by the professional judiciary, and the rejection of general exclusionary rules of evidence. But a full explanation requires French legal culture to be understood in the context of French political culture. This reveals a very different conception of relations between state and citizen to that of Anglo-Saxon liberalism. As a result the legitimacy of trial is seen in terms of the rehabilitation of the accused as a citizen of the state rather than simply the punishment of a particular infraction.     

Applying generic sentencing aims in domestic violence cases in England and Wales

There is an enduring legacy of trivialisation and ineffectiveness at various stages in the criminal justice process when it comes to responding to domestic violence. One area of contention relates to sentence. Sentencers in England and Wales are bound by law to have regard to a number of aims: the punishment of offenders; deterrence; public protection; rehabilitation; and reparation. Whilst commentators have criticised the framework on the basis that it is contradictory and engenders inconsistency, it will be argued that granting sentencers discretion to balance the prescribed aims maximises the potential for a successful outcome in individual cases.     

公诉权与辩护权的比较思考

公诉权和辩护权的形成过程表现出不同的特征,二者都深深地根植于赖以存在的社会制度和诉讼文化之中。世界上公认的两大法系——大陆法系和英美法系的公诉制度和辩护制度的形成和表现形式存在着较大的差异。实现公诉权和辩护权的平等对抗是控辩式诉讼制度的初衷,为达到这一目标,我国还需要从完善诉讼制度方面加快刑事诉讼改革的步伐,努力使公诉权和辩护权由不平等走向平等。     

The Malthusian intermezzo: Women's wages and human capital formation between the late Middle Ages and the demographic transition of the 19th century

The paper offers a new explanation for ‘the great conundrum’, the acceleration of population growth in England in the second half of the 18th century. It is argued that it was not only population growth that was ‘different’ in England, but the stagnation of the rise of literacy and of human capital in general, seems to be an anomaly of this period. This ‘conundrum’ has been explained in the following way. It is demonstrated that in England the gender wage gap increased a lot during the early modern period, which was caused by: (a) the switch from post Black Death labour scarcity to labour surplus, which in particular harmed the economic position of women, and (b) changes in the structure of agriculture, leading to the rise of large-scale, capital intensive and labour extensive farms, which had a very limited demand for female (wage) labour. This is also suggested by the fact that on the Continent (in the Netherlands) a much smaller decline of female wages occurred, because there family farms continued to be quite important. Moreover, the decline of English wages had important effects on its demographic development. It helps to explain the decline of the average age of marriage of in particular women between 1600 and 1800, and the related increase in fertility that occurred in this period — resulting in a much faster rate of population growth after 1750 than elsewhere in Western-Europe. It also helps to explain the stagnation in human capital formation that occurred during the 18th and early 19th century — again a feature peculiar for the English development in these years. The explanation of ‘the great conundrum’ is therefore intimately linked to the changing position of women on the labour market and within marriage.     

The development of forensic medicine in the United Kingdom from the 18th century.

Forensic medicine in the United Kingdom includes both forensic pathology and clinical forensic medicine on the living. It began at the end of the 18th century, long after its development in Germany, Italy, France, and other countries in Europe. Initial beginnings were in Scotland, where a program began at the University of Edinburgh with the establishment of a chair in Forensic Medicine by Prof. Andrew Duncan Sr. The development in England began in London's Kings College Medical School with a chair held by Prof. William A. Guy. Later chairs in Forensic Medicine were established in Glasgow, Aberdeen, and in London, where Forensic Medicine was taught at St. Mary's Hospital Medical School, Guy's Hospital Medical School, London Hospital Medical School, Charing Cross Hospital Medical School, St. Thomas Hospital Medical School, and St. George's Hospital Medical School. In other cities in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, departments were founded in Leeds, Manchester, Cardiff, and Belfast. Many textbooks were prepared during this time by professors from these medical schools and by others working in nonacademic areas. The development of coroner activities and those of the police surgeons is also part of the study of forensic medicine.     

Homicide Trends in Finland and Estonia in 1880–1940: Consequences of the Demographic,Social and Political Effects of Industrialization

While in western Europe and Scandinavia homicide rates reached their all time low during the period of industrialization, in Finland and Estonia they increased considerably. The rapid growth of criminal violence during the late 1800s and first half of the 1900s in these two countries seems to have been the result of interaction of several factors, partly non-simultaneous and unrelated. They do not seem to have been identical either, although the underlying equation was the same: the quick social and economic change following industrialization, and the modernisation of agriculture, the pressures it put especially on the youth in the form of uncertain prospects for the future and a new competition-oriented set of values, connected with the authoritarian political system of Russian Empire, which prevented necessary political reforms and left behind a legacy of social thinking idealizing violence as a political and social instrument. A legacy, which affected large parts of Finnish and Estonian population still for years after the czarist system itself already passed into history. The criminal violence arisen from the equation, however, had quite a different face on the northern coast of the Gulf of Finland from that on the southern one. In Finland the violence was centered in the new forest industrial communities, in Estonia again among the landless population of the countryside.