To block or not to block: European approaches to content regulation,and implications for freedom of expression

Based on the limited effectiveness of state laws, and lack of harmonization at international level a number of states started to introduce policies to block access to Internet content and websites deemed illegal which are situated outside their legal jurisdiction. However, blocking policies are not always subject to due process principles, decisions are not necessarily taken by the courts of law, and often administrative bodies or Internet hotlines run by the private sector decide which content or website should be subject to blocking. Therefore, increasingly, the compatibility of blocking action is questioned with regards to the fundamental right of freedom of expression. This article assesses significant developments at the pan-European level with regards to the development, and implementation of Internet content blocking policies. Adaptation of content blocking policies from certain member states of both the European Union and the Council of Europe will be used to assess the nature and implementation of access blocking policies. It will be argued that there could be a breach of Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights if blocking measures or filtering tools are used at state level to silence politically motivated speech on the Internet.     

The State of the Art of Child Hearings in Germany. Results of a Nationwide Representative Study in German Courts

According to German family law, in family court proceedings that deal with custody or access rights, family judges are obligated to personally hear the child if the feelings, ties, or will of the child are significant for the decision. In a research study commissioned by the Federal Ministry of Justice, a nationwide representative survey of all judges compiled their personal information and their attitudes and expectations as well as various parameters regarding the concrete practice of hearing children. Also, with a very complex methodological design, over 50 children and their parents were studied one week in advance of the hearing, directly before and after the hearing, and four weeks following the hearing. The results of the study are presented, particularly those pertaining to the burden and relief for the children and the expectations of judges. The practical experiences of family judges in personally hearing children are included as well.     

The security of access to accounts under the PSD2

The revised Payment Services Directive (‘PSD2’) has been adopted to stimulate the development of an integrated internal market for payment services. In particular, it facilitates payment initiation services and account information services by granting the providers of these services access to the accounts of the payment service users. At the same time, the recitals state that the PSD2 guarantees a high level of consumer protection, security of payment transactions and protection against fraud.This paper answers the following question: To what extent does the access to accounts of the payment initiation service providers and account information service providers balance the development of the market for payment services with the security of the payment account and the privacy of the user? An analysis of the PSD2 shows that the development of the market for payment services has a higher priority. Security and privacy are ultimately subordinate.First, the PSD2 does not adequately protect the personal data of the users. The definition of ‘account information service’ is broad and covers a wide range of services. This allows the payment service providers to circumvent the limitations of the access to accounts.Next, the payment service providers have a ‘fall back option’ that allows ‘screen scraping’ if the dedicated interface is not functioning properly. Although this access is constrained by several safeguards, the fall back option gives the payment services provider unlimited access to the account of the user.Finally, the payment service providers have considerable freedom to arrange their authentication process as they see fit. The banks seem to be required to trust this process. The PSD2 and regulatory technical standards do not demand that a bank is able to verify the authentication or the integrity of the payment order.     

中国民事诉讼立案程序的功能与结构

我国现行诉讼程序在总体框架上呈现结构分立而功能交汇的特征,立案程序在司法行政管理体系上独立于审判程序而在功能上与审判程序混为一体,在当下大调解模式下更与诉外解纷程序之间混沌不清。本文以区分司法的社会责任与职业责任为基础,强调立案程序在区分咨询性质的起诉与起诉意向明确的起诉时不同态度,同时确立了我国诉讼要件审查标准,即须有争议存在,且争议具有民事性(平等主体之间)和法律性,从而为转型时期的中国将非典型案件逐步转化为具有可诉性的案件提供可资参考的抽象标准。     

知情权与信息获取权——以英美为比较法基础的概念界分

知情权与信息获取权是两个不同的概念,在我国行政法学界有被混淆的倾向。以英美为基础的比较法视野看,两者在逻辑结构、规范表述和制度印证层面,都有着不同的特质。这对概念的界分,已然构成其信息自由立法理念的奠基。以此来反思概念混淆对我国现行《政府信息公开条例》在规范结构、立法理念和制度建构中的可能影响。并以概念界分为契机,指向未来更为完善的政府信息公开立法。     

电视购物发展对策探析

作为一种新兴的营销模式,电视购物符合人们快节奏的生活方式,在我国有着较大的发展空间。但是目前,电视购物在我国的发展过程中存在着许多问题,这在一定程度上制约了电视购物的发展。为此国家应健全相关法律,加强监管,电视购物企业自身要诚信经营,以促进电视购物行业的健康发展。     

Career Paths and Choices in a Highly Differentiated Profession: The Position of Newly Qualified Solicitors

Differences in the working lives of solicitors have become increasingly marked in recent years. Growing numbers of lawyers are employed in the public and corporate sectors and, with the increasing size and wealth of City of London commercial firms, there are significant differences between these firms and those 'high-street' firms that serve local communities. These differences impact on lawyers throughout training and beyond, both in terms of rites of passage into the profession and in conditions of employment. This research, the final stage in a longitudinal survey spanning the 1990s, combines quantitative and qualitative methods to explore the reactions of newly qualified solicitors to their work. Building on the project's previous surveys, which charted the nature of disadvantage suffered by many prospective entrants to the legal profession, the research finds a large measure of satisfaction regarding careers. It also identifies causes for concern, including increasing specialisation in legal education and the potential separation of the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards of professional practice.     

我国当前法治对策研究的重点课题与进路

一个国家要实行法治、建设法治和发展法治,除了要研究和解决法治的基本理论问题外,还必须研究和解决实现法治的对策问题.我国当前亟需研究和解决的法治对策重点课题有五:执政党如何依法执政；人民如何有效监督政府；公权力如何既相互合作又相互制约；如何正确处理发展、改革、创新与法治的关系；如何正确处理服务型政府与有限政府、法治政府的关系.要对这些课题进行真正科学的研究,找出切合实际的答案,必须遵循正确的进路与方法,特别是要在法治对策研究要不要进行价值判断；法治对策研究应不应该从制定法出发；法治对策研究应如何平衡法的安定性、稳定性与改革、发展的变动性的关系；法治对策研究应如何处理激情与理性的关系等问题上作出正确的抉择.     

An assessment of the proportionality of regulation of ‘over the top’ communications services under Europe's common regulatory framework for electronic communications networks and services

‘Over the top’ communications services such as Skype and FaceTime are changing the way we communicate, carrying voice and video traffic over the Internet. Unlike traditional mobile and fixed line alternatives, these services fall outside the reach of the common regulatory framework. Whilst an absence of regulation is not appropriate, neither is subjecting these services to the full gamut of regulation the path forward: an analysis of the core elements of the regulatory frameworks reveals that, in respect of data retention and privacy, harmonisation of regulation is appropriate. The remaining challenge is determining whether effective regulation could indeed be imposed on services offered from outside the EU.     

论制定香港信息公开法

香港政府的信息公开工作是以一部《公开资料守则》(以下简称《守则》)作为基础制度展开整个公开透明框架。这部颁布于1995年的政府内部指引因没有法律效力、涵盖范围狭隘、没有提供救济等问题广受诟病,制定信息公开法和档案法的呼声在香港日益高涨。从经验借鉴的视角看,香港制定《守则》时的参照国——具有浓厚保密行政传统的英国已顺应国内立法呼声而制定了信息公开立法;从实践必要性的角度看,香港过去几年实践经验表明,在缺少一部信息公开立法的情况下,香港民众通过民主手段获取资料的成本更高,耗时更久;从理论正当性的角度看,香港公民享有正当的知情权,而政府具有通过立法保障该权利的责任。因此,香港信息公开法的出台具有必要性和正当性。