Digital Economy Act 2010: fighting a losing battle? Why the ‘three strikes’ law is not the answer to copyright law's latest challenge

This paper argues that the Digital Economy Act (DEA) 2010, already much delayed in its implementation, is fundamentally flawed in three respects. First, there are internal inconsistencies in the complex provisions to be enacted under secondary legislation. In particular, the problem of relying on Internet Protocol (IP) addresses to identify alleged infringers has proved problematic. Secondly, the proposed measures are disproportionate in terms of the offence and severity of the punishment involving a warning-system leading to possible disconnection from the Internet for copyright infringement. Thirdly, the Act is unlikely to succeed in its central purpose to control unauthorised digital copying because of its technological specificity in a fast moving environment, and a lack of consumer acceptance. Finally, by comparing the treatment of these issues under legislation in other countries, in particular New Zealand, alternative copyright enforcement models are explored.     

From Theory to Practice: National and Regional Application of the Guiding Principles

The 1951 Refugee Convention affords protection for those whocross a border, but there is no specific legally binding instrumentfor internally displaced persons (IDPs). As of December 2007,there were an estimated 26 million IDPs in the world. The 1998Guiding Principles are, in and of themselves, soft law, andthey emphasise that the primary responsibility and duty to provideprotection and humanitarian assistance to IDPs lies with thestate in whose jurisdiction they are found. The Guiding Principlesare an excellent tool for the development of national policiesand laws on internal displacement. Nevertheless, without effectiveimplementation and an independent judiciary, as well as disseminationand awareness, these national laws remain pieces of paper thatonly give the impression that measures have been taken. If individualsare not provided with effective mechanisms to access their rights,and if governments do not develop systems to review their effectiveness,then we are little better off than before the national policieswere developed. This article will consider the cases of Colombia,Turkey and Angola to determine the scope of the laws, theirconcurrence with international principles, as well as theirpractical effectiveness for those displaced.     

Talking in the dark: Rules to facilitate open debate about lawful access to strongly encrypted information

Strong encryption can prevent anybody from accessing user data, including the technology companies responsible for its implementation. As strong encryption technology has become increasingly prevalent, law enforcement agencies have sought legislation to secure continued lawful access to the data affected. Following analysis of the encryption debates in the United States and the United Kingdom, this article will propose three rules that governments should follow to facilitate open debate and prevent the implementation of unsafe lawful access solutions. Firstly, we will provide context on current encryption policy. Secondly, it will be shown that continuous open debate must be facilitated in order to prevent the implementation of unsafe lawful access solutions. Finally, it will be argued that governments should be held to three rules when engaging in debate about lawful access: legislation governing lawful access must state clearly on its face whether decryption can be mandated; the encryption debate must not be oversimplified or reduced to emotive examples in order to secure public support for unsafe solutions; and safeguards on warrants must not be conflated with safeguards on lawful access mechanisms in order to suggest that solutions are safer than is actually the case.     

To block or not to block: European approaches to content regulation,and implications for freedom of expression

Based on the limited effectiveness of state laws, and lack of harmonization at international level a number of states started to introduce policies to block access to Internet content and websites deemed illegal which are situated outside their legal jurisdiction. However, blocking policies are not always subject to due process principles, decisions are not necessarily taken by the courts of law, and often administrative bodies or Internet hotlines run by the private sector decide which content or website should be subject to blocking. Therefore, increasingly, the compatibility of blocking action is questioned with regards to the fundamental right of freedom of expression. This article assesses significant developments at the pan-European level with regards to the development, and implementation of Internet content blocking policies. Adaptation of content blocking policies from certain member states of both the European Union and the Council of Europe will be used to assess the nature and implementation of access blocking policies. It will be argued that there could be a breach of Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights if blocking measures or filtering tools are used at state level to silence politically motivated speech on the Internet.     

中国上市公司董事会治理与制度完善

结合新修改的<公司法>、<证券法>,从董事会治理的角度讨论我国上市公司董事会制度的立法完善问题,指出董事会的立法应该以上市公司利益最大化制度为目标,而不是股东利益最大化,更不是控股股东利益的最大化.在这个理论前提下,在对我国现行的董事会运行实践和制度环境进行评述后,指出我国上市公司董事会治理中,董事会独立性不够,董事会决策和监督功能弱化.最后对我国上市公司董事会制度的立法完善提出了一系列立法建议和对策,包括:设立上市公司国有股权信托计划,弱化政府透过股权对董事会的超强控制;由债权银行提名专项董事参与上市公司运作,以提高金融分业经营格局下银行信贷资金的安全性和使用效益;建立董事执业档案以培育职业经理人市场.     

The future of copyright in India

Legal context: The copyright laws in India are set to be amended with the introductionof the provisions for anti-circumvention and Rights ManagementInformation in the Indian copyright regime although India isunder no obligation to introduce these changes as it is nota signatory to WCT or WPPT. Key points: The main purpose of these provisions and measures is to preventillegal commercial copying, a menace which hits the Indian movieand music industry significantly enough to ensure that the industryforms a strong lobby in such proposals. India has amended itscopyright legislation over the years to accommodate technologicalchanges and prevent piracy; however, the problem has only escalatedover the years. Technological measures impose restrictions onthe access to content and impose other restrictions on the useof the same. Practical significance: Who are the actual stakeholders behind advocating these changes?Is it Bollywood or the same Hollywood studios which lobbiedfor the same changes in international legislation? What maybe the cultural implications of adopting such changes in Indiancopyright laws? The paper would attempt to assess the culturaleffect of the combined legal and technical measures being proposedunder the copyright laws in India.     

Legal and ethical considerations of biometric identity card: Case for Mauritius

The highly connected nature of the current era has raised the need for more secure systems, and hence the demand for biometric-based authentication methods. In 2013, the Mauritian Government invested massively in the collection of data, and implementation of the national biometric identity card scheme. The latter has suffered a number of contestations among the population, and several cases were consequently filed at the Supreme Court of Mauritius to oppose the use of this biometric card. The main concern was the collection of biometric data which posed threats to the privacy of individuals. Additionally, the collection and retention of biometric data lead to security issues. In this paper, the challenges with respect to the usage of the biometric card are analysed. The laws governing data protection are discussed, together with the legal framework used for data collection and retention. Following the court decisions, several amendments have been made to the existing laws in order to cater for the usage of biometric data for the public interest. Finally, recommendations are made with regards to a legal framework which will enhance the security of biometric data, and eventually encouraging public acceptance of this biometric identification system.     

Data Theft? Cybercrime and the Increasing Criminalization of Access to Data

The use of computers in the commission of crime, so-called ??cybercrime??, presents a considerable challenge to law enforcement. Central to the prosecution of cybercrime is the offence of unauthorised access to a computer, or ??hacking??. Originally conceived of as analogous to trespass, the trend in some jurisdictions has been toward punishing access to computer data per se. This issue also arises under the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime which criminalizes ??offences against the confidentiality, integrity and availability of computer data and systems??. As the criminal law traditionally provides protection only to limited forms of information, the increasing use of the criminal law to protect computer data therefore confers on it a status not enjoyed by information stored in other forms. Drawing upon the laws of Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States, this article explores the increasing criminalization of access to computer data. It describes the evolution of cybercrime laws and considers ways in which problems of over breadth may be avoided. Questions will also be raised as to the appropriate role of the criminal law in protecting information.     

Protective order legislation: Trends in state statutes

Very little research has examined state legislation on protective orders. This study examined recent state statutes and compared the findings with a landmark 1988 study. Results indicated that more recent laws provided greater access to victims and expanded their eligible populations to include categories that were excluded in earlier legislation (i.e., dating partners, sexual partners, and same-sex partners). Orders increased slightly in duration and there were more access to them outside of normal working hours. Compared with earlier legislation, newer laws were more apt to authorize judges to fashion remedies that address financial matters. Penalties for violations remained relatively stable, although states were increasingly willing to use enhanced sanctions for repeat offenders. States continued to use mandatory arrest to enforce orders, although this trend was not as pronounced as one might have anticipated. Finally, legislators incorporated many aspects of new federal legislation into state statutes.     

An overview of EU data protection rules on use of data collected online

In the third of our series of articles considering the EU’s limited harmonisation of the laws regulating the activities of businesses using the Internet, we look at EU rules on the use of data collected online. We consider the principles governing the processing of personal data collected online. We then discuss the new rules on the use of cookies and the practical difficulties facing website operators in complying with them and conclude with a brief overview of the rules governing the transfer of personal data outside the EEA.     

Online selling and contracting: An overview of EU rules

In the second of our series of articles considering the EU’s limited harmonisation of the laws regulating the activities of businesses using the Internet, we look at the rules governing contracting and selling online. We consider the circumstances in which three key EU directives apply, the rights, under these directives, of consumers who contract online and the effect of electronic signatures as used for online contracting.     

Any-Willing-Provider laws: their financial effect on HMOs

Any-Willing-Provider (AWP) legislation requires that health plans accept any health care provider who agrees to conform to the plan's conditions, terms, and reimbursement rates. Many states have adopted such legislation, raising questions about its effect on the managed care market. Those favoring this legislation argue that it will reduce restrictions on choice of provider, while opponents argue that it will reduce competition by increasing administrative and medical costs for managed care plans. Using cross-sectional time-series data for the period 1992-1995 (the period during which many of these laws were enacted), this study investigates the effect that these laws have on HMO financial performance. Our results show that "all-provider" AWP laws have a very limited effect on the financial performance measures we examine. "Pharmacy" AWP laws have a more significant effect, but neither type of law appears to affect the overall profitability of HMOs.     

全球金融危机下中国农产品贸易面临的挑战及法律对策

WTO的农业规则短期内难以改变。全球金融危机给国际农产品贸易带来了较大影响。我国应建立既符合WTO农业协议又能灵活保护国内农业的关税体系,在拆除与WTO农业协议相悖的非关税措施的基础上建立合理的非关税保护体系;有必要参照WTO农业协议并借鉴国际上的先进立法,进一步完善《农业法》并适当地制定配套法律法规;应活用"黄色"政策和"蓝箱"政策,并用足"微量允许标准"和"特殊和差别待遇",充分运用"绿箱"政策;应注重运用既能保护我国农业,又不受WTO农业协议限制的其他出口支持措施,并从立法与执法上加强对动植物卫生与检疫措施的运用。     

强制性侦查措施的法律规制与法律监督

不需要得到相对人自愿配合而直接实施的侦查措施为强制性侦查措施。强制性侦查措施具有正当性，同时也具有侵害公民基本权益的弊端。为避免或减轻强制性侦查措施对公民权利造成侵害，需要通过法律规范强制性侦查措施，同时需要加强对强制性侦查措施的法律监督。目前我国强制性侦查措施的法律规制严重不足，对于强制性侦查措施的法律监督局限于对逮捕等强制措施适用的监督，对搜查、扣押、冻结等大量强制性侦查措施尚未形成有效的监督机制。强化对于强制性侦查措施的法律监督，需要通过立法完善强制性侦查措施的规范体系，同时也有赖于检察机关改革、优化侦查监督的工作机制。     

AIDS: the first decade.

AIDS has had a profound effect on society and the workplace and has raised legal and social problems for which society was not prepared. This article will chronicle the evolution of federal, state and local law concerning AIDS and the workplace. Although there are some clear-cut answers and guidelines that address the relationship of employer and employee to the AIDS epidemic, current legislation and enforcement of those laws does not adequately address the AIDS victim as a handicapped individual. Emphasis is also placed on the problems peculiar to the health care industry, the constitutionality of present legislation, and the AIDS victim's right to privacy versus the employer's need to know. Finally, some practical solutions and guidelines will be presented that will help the employer deal with the AIDS victim and his or her co-worker.     

Troubled Waters: The Unifying Influence of Conservation and Public Health on the Access Provisions of the Marine and Coastal Access Act

The Marine and Coastal Access Act, amongst its other aims, is intended to ‘build on existing access legislation to create a route around the coast of England’ (Foreword to the Draft Marine Bill, HMSO 2008). As such the Act can be seen as a continuation of the access objectives of the Countryside and Rights of Way Act, and possibly as a vindication of the success of the original Act. The broad objectives of access, land management and conservation are present in both pieces of legislation, though it remains to be seen whether the access provisions of the Marine Act will enjoy the same level of funding as those of the CROW Act. This paper investigates the origins of the Marine Act, and in particular the power and influence of tourism, nostalgia and environmentalism on the emergence of this legislation.     

试论开放性和独立性的矿业立法模式的构建

我国矿业立法的困境逼迫着我们寻找一条新路以探求矿业立法所应当遵循的立法模式。引入系统哲学理论作为统筹,以系统哲学理论为基点阐发一部具有整体性或是融贯性的法律所应当具备的开放性和独立性。此外,基于实践活动的客观现实性,分别探讨了开放性和独立性所应当立足的法学理论的客观规律和矿业发展的客观规律。并以此为我国矿业立法模式的构建提供一种路径选择。文章试图从一个较为宏观的角度审视立法模式应当具备的样态。不奢望这一理想中的立法模式能成为现实,只愿我国未来的矿业立法在朝着这一模式前进的道路上能有所进步。     

大数据背景下个人生物识别信息安全的法律规制

个人生物识别信息具有个人数据的唯一性、程序识别性、可复制性、损害的不可逆性及信息的关联性等特征。在大数据背景下,个人生物识别信息的广泛应用会带来严重的生物信息安全风险,其滥用可造成隐私权、平等权和财产权等权益受到侵犯,需要立法进行全方位规制。我国目前个人生物信息的相关立法存在总体位阶较低且内容分散、保护范围狭窄、权利义务边界不清、法律责任不明晰等缺陷,应当采取渐进式专门立法的思路,完善现有相关部门法关于个人生物信息的规制内容,构建层次分明、内外协调的个人生物识别信息安全保护的法律体系。     

Juvenile Competency and Pretrial Due Process: A Call for Greater Protections in Massachusetts for Juveniles Residing in Procedural Purgatory

While juvenile courts continue to balance and reevaluate the dual goals of community safety and rehabilitation of youth, juveniles who are not competent to stand trial have been left without sufficient procedural protections. This paper examines Massachusetts’ approach to juvenile competency, due process, and pretrial procedure, within a national context. The inadequacies of the Massachusetts juvenile competency laws are not unique. Currently there are nineteen states that either entirely lack juvenile‐specific competency legislation or merely incorporate inapposite adult criminal statutes and standards into the juvenile context—making it difficult or impossible for those juvenile courts to dismiss or divert a delinquency petition following an incompetency finding. Massachusetts and states similarly situated should adopt explicit statutory language to delineate the basis for a juvenile incompetency finding and the grounds for dismissing delinquency complaints pretrial after an incompetency finding has been made. This paper proposes that Massachusetts adopt a timeline for effecting such dismissals based in part on the amount of time a juvenile could face if committed to the juvenile correctional authority following an adjudication of delinquency. The paper also recommends best practices of states that are pioneering juvenile legislative reforms like dismissal timelines and incompetency presumptions. Finally, we suggest a more stringent regulatory framework be put in place governing the pretrial detention of youths who have been found not competent to stand trial—a framework that recognizes and preserves the juvenile's substantive rights to education, mental health and rehabilitative services. Without legislation, juveniles found not competent to stand trial remain subject to the prospect of indefinite locked detention, often without access to the necessary services that contribute to future success as well as attainment of competency. This lack of due process runs counter to the foundational goals of the juvenile justice system.     

Privacy,National Security,and Internet Economy: An Explanation of China's Personal Information Protection Legislation

With the development of the internet and the increasing role played by information technology in the economy, personal information protection has become one of the most significant legal and public policy problems. Since 2013, China has accelerated its legislation efforts towards protecting personal information. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China took effect on June 1, 2017. Legal scholars focus on the nature of personal information, discuss the necessity of enacting specific laws on protecting personal information, and attempt to propose relevant draft laws regarding personal information protection. Personal information protection, however, is not only a legal issue but also a political one. We need to look at the decision-making process about legislation on personal information protection in China. Why has China sped up its legislation on personal information protection since 2013? Is privacy, civil rights, or legal interest the main reason behind the legislation? Only after placing personal information protection legislation in a broader context, can we have a better understanding of the underlying logic and dynamics of personal information protection in China, and can perceive the potential content and possible future of these legislation. This paper argues that Internet industry development, the social consequences of personal information infringement, and national security are the main drivers of China’s personal information protection legislation.