再释“被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪”——与周光权教授商榷

我国的通说认为,对《刑法》第29条第2款中的"被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪",应按其字面含义解释为"被教唆的人没有按教唆犯的意思实施犯罪";不能以共犯从属性说为根据解释为,"被教唆的人已着手实行犯罪但没有既遂"。我国刑法不是采取德、日刑法那样的区分正犯与共犯的犯罪参与体系,而是采取单一正犯(犯罪人)体系,也没有采取德、日所流行的共犯从属性说,因而不存在按共犯从属性说做上述不同于通说之解释的法律基础。况且,即便是认为我国刑法采取了区分制和共犯从属性说,也不能否认其做出了处罚教唆未遂(即处罚"被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪"的教唆犯)的例外规定。德国刑法就是适例。德国的通说对他们刑法中的"教唆他人实施重罪而未遂"(即教唆未遂)的解释,与我国的通说对"被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪"的理解大体相同,这足以说明我国持共犯从属性说的论者所做的上述"目的解释",不具有合理性。我国的通说并非是站在主观主义的立场所做的解释,所采取的"严格解释"方法是罪刑法定主义的基本要求,并且正确说明了《刑法》第29条第2款与第1款的关系,完全符合体系解释的要求。教唆未遂(即"被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪")的情形,在犯罪形态上,不属于犯罪未遂,而属于犯罪预备。我国《刑法》第29条第2款对这种特殊预备犯的处罚规定尚有缺陷,有必要通过修改刑法来予以完善。     

共犯对正犯故意的从属性之否定

共犯对正犯故意的从属性,是指教唆犯与帮助犯的成立,以正犯具有犯罪的故意为前提。但是,这种观点形成了明显的处罚漏洞,导致处罚的不公平。否认共犯对正犯故意的从属性,只是放弃了通说要求被教唆、被帮助的正犯必须有故意这一个条件,而没有缓和其他条件,因而不会违反罪刑法定原则。     

“被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪”之理解——兼与刘明祥教授商榷

如果体系性地考虑刑法总则关于共犯的规定以及分则关于拟制正犯的规定,就应该认为我国刑法对共同犯罪采用区分制而非单一正犯概念,共犯从属性说应该得到肯定。刑法第29条第2款规定的“被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪”,只能解释为教唆犯教唆他人犯罪,被教唆人已经着手实行犯罪,但没有达到既遂状态。如此解释既有助于维持共犯的实行从属性,坚持刑法客观主义,也不会放纵犯罪。对于教唆信息完全没有传递给被教唆人、被教唆人明确拒绝教唆、被教唆人虽接受教唆但尚未开始实施预备行为等情形,教唆行为对法益的危险仅仅停留在教唆者内心,不能成立非共同犯罪的教唆未遂。将上述教唆行为评价为教唆未遂,是对刑法第29条第2款的曲解,没有体系地解释刑法规范,有走向刑法主观主义的危险。     

中国犯罪参与模式之定位:应然与实然之间的二元区分体系

我国的犯罪参与模式,究竟属于单一正犯体系还是二元区分体系存在激烈争论。中国刑法虽然没有直接采用"正犯"与"共犯"的概念,但是完全可以从中解释出正犯、教唆犯、帮助犯和组织犯的犯罪参与类型。从属性原则对于限缩处罚范围、维护共同犯罪领域的罪刑法定具有重要意义,应当坚守。刑法第29条第2款的规定并不违背从属性原则。从属性原则决定了正犯与共犯之间不法评价上的差异,这使得在应然层面上正犯与共犯之间存在刑罚上的一般性差异。但是,这种一般性差异并不否定刑罚个别化裁量。共同犯罪中的作用分类法并不能成为采纳单一正犯体系的理由,同时也无需采取"主犯正犯化、从犯共犯化"的观点。在立法实然与理论应然之间,中国的犯罪参与模式应当被定位为二元区分体系。     

共犯人关系的再思考

刑法总则规定了哪些参与人,刑法对共犯人如何分类(参与类型),是两个不同的问题。我国刑法总则虽然规定了主犯、从犯、胁从犯与教唆犯四种情形,但不能据此认为这四种情形就是对共犯人的分类。刑法理论必须以罪刑法定原则为根据,确定刑法总则应当规定哪些参与类型。由于刑法分则规定的是正犯,所以,只有当刑法总则规定了教唆犯、帮助犯时,才能扩张地处罚教唆犯与帮助犯,否则便违反罪刑法定原则。由于共同正犯不以实施构成要件行为为前提,所以,如果对共同正犯按照正犯处罚,就必须有刑法总则的明文规定。主张刑法第26条规定的主犯与正犯是交叉关系、递进关系或者等同关系以及双层次区分说的观点,都存在缺陷。刑法第26条是关于共同正犯的规定,该规定贯彻了“部分行为全部责任”的原理。教唆他人犯罪的,如果在共同犯罪中起主要作用,就属于(共谋)共同正犯,按正犯处罚;如果起次要作用,则是狭义共犯中的教唆犯,应当按从犯量刑。基于实质标准,对起次要作用的实行者,也只能按从犯处罚。     

论教唆行为的法律本质

关于教唆行为的法律本质,有教唆犯独立性说语境下的犯罪实行行为与教唆犯从属性说语境下的共犯行为之争.基于犯罪构成理论和实行行为构造的视角分析,教唆行为并不具备所教唆之罪的犯罪实行行为的特质.世界各国无一例外地处罚被教唆者未实施所教唆之罪情况下具有重大法益侵害危险性的教唆行为,也从实定法的维度否定了教唆行为是必须依附于正犯的实行行为才具有可罚性的共犯行为.基于对教唆行为本身的构造分析,可以得出教唆行为是所教唆之罪的犯罪预备行为的结论.     

不能用行为共同说解释我国刑法中的共同犯罪

试图用德、日的行为共同说来解释我国刑法规定的共同犯罪,不仅是行不通的路径,而且其理论根据也不可靠。我国刑法规定的共同犯罪之所以不能用行为共同说来解释,归根到底是因为行为共同说是区分正犯与共犯的区分制犯罪参与体系的产物,而我国刑法采取的是不区分正犯与共犯的单一正犯体系。德、日刑法中的共同正犯或共犯必须在定罪阶段（犯罪论层次）确定,而我国刑法中的共同犯罪则是在量刑（处罚）阶段才涉及的问题。     

“被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪”之解释

我国刑法采取的是单一正犯体系，教唆犯从属性说无存在的法律基础，用此说来解释我国刑法第29条第2款中的“被教唆的人没有犯被教唆的罪”，不具有合理性。应当将其解释为被教唆的人没有按教唆犯的意思实施犯罪，具体包括四种情形：(1)教唆犯已实施教唆行为但教唆信息(或内容)还未传达到被教唆的人；(2)被教唆的人拒绝教唆犯的教唆；(3)被教唆的人接受教唆，但还未为犯罪做准备；(4)被教唆的人接受教唆，但后来改变犯意或者因误解教唆犯的意思实施了其他犯罪，并且所犯之罪不能包容被教唆的罪。     

共犯最小从属性说之再提倡——兼论帮助信息网络犯罪活动罪的性质

限制从属性说以正犯行为同时具有构成要件该当性与违法性作为共犯的成立前提,因而面临无法有效应对新型网络共同犯罪的危机。为解决这一危机,该说中有着眼于帮助对象必须是他人的"犯罪",主张帮助信息网络犯罪活动罪只是"帮助犯的量刑规则"的,也有以刑法分则条文的定罪机能为根据,提出"帮助犯正犯化"说的。但是,共犯的违法性不从属于正犯,正犯合法之时共犯亦可能违法,正犯违法之时共犯亦可能合法,因而应采取最小从属性说。在该说看来,帮助信息网络犯罪活动罪在属于独立罪名这一意义上,具有正犯性,而在只有为他人"犯罪"提供帮助才能成立犯罪这一意义上,又具有共犯性,因而是一种介于正犯与共犯之间的"混合归责模式"。这种理解虽然看似违反形式逻辑,但其恰恰是对刑法第287条之二的忠实解读,且完全符合司法解释主张原则上应从属于正犯犯罪,但在严格限制的前提下可以仅从属于正犯实行行为的态度。     

论《刑法修正案(九)》关于恐怖犯罪的规定

《刑法修正案(九)》关于恐怖犯罪的规定,在总体上具有法益保护早期化、处罚范围扩大化与处罚程度严厉化的特点。从构成要件的角度来说,则存在帮助犯的正犯化、预备犯的既遂化与构成要件的交叉化三个特点。帮助犯的正犯化与对帮助犯单纯设置量刑规则,是两种不同性质的法律规定;《刑法修正案(九)》所增加的第120条之一第2款以及被修正的第1款,对帮助犯实行了正犯化;对于实施上述两款行为的,应当作为正犯处理;教唆、帮助他人实施该两款行为的,应认定为两款犯罪的教唆犯与帮助犯。《刑法修正案(九)》增设的第120条之二第1款,对预备犯实行了既遂化(独立预备罪);该款规定的行为属于实行行为,而不再是预备行为;教唆、帮助他人实施本款规定行为的,成立准备恐怖活动罪的教唆犯、帮助犯;为他人实施恐怖活动进行准备的行为,也可能成立准备恐怖活动罪;按独立预备罪论处导致处罚程度轻于从属预备罪时,应按从属预备罪论处。《刑法修正案(九)》关于恐怖犯罪构成要件的规定存在大量交叉现象,但不能将这种交叉关系解释为法条竞合,而应认定为想象竞合,从而发挥想象竞合的明示机能,实现预防恐怖犯罪的目的。     

Fatal poisoning in drug addicts in the Nordic countries in 2007

The frequency of medico-legally examined fatal poisonings in 2007 among drug addicts was investigated in five Nordic countries; Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. The number of deaths, age, sex, place of death, main intoxicant, and other drugs present in blood samples were recorded to obtain national and comparable Nordic data, as well as data to compare with earlier studies in 2002, 1997, and 1991. Norway had the highest incidence of drug addict deaths by poisoning followed by Denmark, with 8.24 and 6.92 per 100,000 inhabitants, respectively. The death rates in Finland (4.02), Iceland (4.56), and Sweden (3.53) were about half that of Norway and Denmark. Compared with earlier studies, the death rates were unchanged in Denmark and Norway, but increased in Finland, Iceland, and Sweden. In all countries, fewer deaths (29-35%) were recorded in the capital area compared with earlier studies. Females accounted for 11-19% of the fatal poisonings. Iceland deviates with a more equal distribution between men and women (40%). Deaths from methadone overdoses increased in all Nordic countries, and methadone was the main intoxicant in Denmark in 2007, accounting for 51% of the poisonings. In Norway and Sweden, heroin/morphine was still the main intoxicant with a frequency of 68% and 48%, respectively. In Iceland, 3 deaths each were due to heroin/morphine and methadone, respectively. Finland differs from other Nordic countries in having a high number of poisonings caused by buprenorphine and very few caused by heroin/morphine. The total number of buprenorphine deaths in Finland doubled from 16 in 2002 to 32 in 2007, where it constituted 25% of deaths. The general toxicological screening program showed widespread multi-drug use in all countries. The median number of drugs per case varied from 3 to 5. The most frequently detected substances were heroin/morphine, methadone, buprenorphine, tramadol, amphetamine, cocaine, tetrahydrocannabinol, benzodiazepines and ethanol.     

2008年中国法治亮点巡礼

2008年，是中国法治进程稳步推进和稳健发展的一年，也是法治亮点频频闪现的一年。2008年的立法景观依然多姿多彩，科学立法、民主立法继续推进，公民对立法工作的有序参与进一步扩大，已出台的十一届全国人大常委会立法规划值得人们期待。此外，实施不久的《政府信息公开条例》、全面开展的监狱体制改革，以及此起彼伏的问责风暴等都是值得我们关注的法治亮点。     

Trustees in Cyprus regulated in 2007

Trust and company service providers in Cyprus are followingin the footsteps of their European counterparts and will toobe regulated at the beginning of 2007.     

Differences in female and male involvement in lethal violence in Russia

Relatively little is known of the distributions of homicide event characteristics in non-Western nations in which women relative to men are involved. This article utilizes unique homicide narratives drawn from Russian court and police records to compare homicide victim, offender, and event characteristics by sex of victim and separately by sex of offender. Results from logistic regression show that homicides in which a female was the victim or offender were more likely to occur between intimates and to occur in the home, whereas homicides involving males were more likely to occur in a public place, to be alcohol-related, to involve a firearm, and to involve a victim and offender who did not know each other well. These results not only present an important first glimpse at women as homicide victims and offenders in Russia specifically, but also provide a point of comparison with findings from similar analyses undertaken in the West, and present further initial observations upon which to construct a cohesive theory about female involvement in serious violent events.     

Trends in Non-Muslim Divorces in Singapore

This article examines the trends and patterns in the way thesecular divorce law has been utilized by couples in Singaporeseeking to end their marriage. Social and demographic featuresof the divorcing couples, as well as the ‘fact’relied on in support of their divorce petitions, are studiedand compared to earlier analyses. It is found that while somepatterns observed by earlier researchers have remained intact,others have changed. This article suggests explanations forthese observed patterns and contributes to the discussion onwhether and how the divorce law can be improved in Singaporeand elsewhere.     

Competence in caring in legal practice

This article is concerned with the stories of female solicitors working in Queensland, Australia, and their account of ethics in practice. These narratives were sought and made in the context of our project investigating complaints received against practitioners in this jurisdiction. Our interviews with female lawyers were intended to provide more insight into complaints matters. Yet this discussion revealed broader insights into ethical questions about the nature of lawyer–client relationships and legal professionalism. This article considers these accounts by reflecting on the concept of ‘care’ and its fit with legal practice requirements today. In doing so, we consider the difficult gendered question of the relationship between caring and ‘women's’ practice. We do not assert a true woman's working style; we seek to contextualise our empirical research by tracing the complex effect of gender on lawyering roles. Finally, we suggest that the adoption of caring practice is a valid approach to lawyering and call for a caring approach to be re-valued in the legal professional context as an ethical proposition.     

论述二十世纪九十年代美国的犯罪问题

在20世纪90年代,犯罪已成为美国社会所面临的一个严峻的问题。集团、枪支、烈性酒、毒品是引发犯罪的重要因素。各类犯罪影响了美国社会的正常秩序,给受害者带来了物质和精神上的痛苦。研究20世纪90年代美国的犯罪问题可以为我国今天打击、预防犯罪提供一些借鉴。