A re-examination of the MMPI-2 aggressiveness and immaturity indices in law enforcement screening

This study reports an analysis of Bartol's (1991) Immaturity Index and Hargrave and associates' (1988) Aggressiveness Index as a measure of police conduct. The correlations between the supervisory ratings and the Immaturity and Aggressiveness indices were examined for 1020 law enforcement officers. The results showed that Immaturity Index was related to termination for failure to complete training and insubordination. The Aggressiveness Index was related to a termination for failure to complete training and several other problematic police behaviors, but was not found to be specifically linked with acts of aggression. Implications for using these two indices in law enforcement selection are discussed. Authors' Note: Cary Rostow, Ph.D. is president of Matrix, Inc., Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and is in private practice in Baton Rouge. Robert Davis, Ph.D., is executive vice-president and director of science, research, and development for Matrix, Inc., and has a private practice in Baton Rouge. James B. Pinston, Ph.D., is a clinical neuropsychologist within the department of neurology at the Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center and School of Medicine in Shreveport, Louisiana. Dennis R. Combs, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Tulsa. Dennis R. Dixon, M.A., is currently a doctoral student at Louisiana State University.     

Compulsive traits and police officer performance

As a general rule, pathologies tend to impair job performance. In a study involving performance criteria and the Personality Assessment Inventory in a sample of Louisiana police officers (N=800), OCD characteristics correlated significantly in a negative direction with several performance criteria, such as involvement in an on-duty or off-duty at fault moving violation, number of on-duty or off-duty at fault moving violations, any citizen complaints regarding unprofessional conduct, number of unprofessional conduct, and accusation in any way of racially offensive conduct, behavior, verbalization, or complaints. It has been found that the traits of obsessive-compulsive disorder, in moderation, may actually improve performance in police officers. This agrees with the Yerkes-Dodson law, which states that peak performance occurs when a person experiences mild to moderate levels of stress. Authors' Note: Emily DeCoster-Martin was an undergraduate psychology major at The University of Evansville at the time this paper was written. William U. Weiss, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Psychology, The University of Evansville, 1800 Lincoln Av., Evansville, IN 47722. Robert D. Davis, Ph.D., is executive vice-president and director of science, research, and development for Matrix, Inc., Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Cary Rostow, Ph.D. is president of Matrix, Inc.     

Law enforcement officer seniority and PAI variables in psychological fitness for duty examinations

Sixty-two police officers were administered the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) during employer referred psychological Fitness for Duty Examinations (FFDEs). PAI scores were analyzed as a function of the length of time the officers had worked within law enforcement occupations. PAI subtest scales ARD, ARD-P, ARD-T and DEP scores all produced significant positive correlations between both the amount of time spent on the current police job and the total time served as a police officer within a bivariate Pearsonr correlation matrix. Implications for an understanding of psychometric test results within the FFDE context and the evolution of law enforcement officer personality patterns are discussed. Author Note: At the time this research was done, Beth Caillouet was with Matrix, Inc. She is now a graduate student in psychology. Cary Rostow, Ph.D., is a police psychologist and president of Matrix, Inc., and Robert Davis, Ph.D., is executive vice-president and director of science, research, and development for Matrix, Inc., Baton Rouge, LA.     

The MMPI-2 L scale as a tool in police selection

The MMPI has been used extensively in the selection of law enforcement personnel. Because police officer candidates have been preselected, however, individuals with obvious mental disturbance have been screened out of the candidate pool before evaluation. It is necessary to search for more subtle variables to serve as predictors of unsatisfactory future performance. The L scale is a subtle variable which can suggest potential for problematic behavior. The value of the L scale in the selection process is discussed. Authors' Note: William U. Weiss, Ph.D., is professor of psychology. The University of Evansville, 1800 Lincoln Av., Evansville, IN 47722. Robert Davis, Ph.D., is executive vice-president and director of science, research, and development, for Matrix, Inc., and Cary Rostow, Ph.D., is president of Matrix, Inc., Baton Rouge, LA. Sarah Kinsman was a psychology major at the University of Evansville at the time this research was conducted.     

Problematic police performance and the personality assessment inventory

A relative newcomer to personality assessment in the area of law enforcement is the Personality Assessment Inventory, or PAI. Earlier MMPI research in the area of police selection has focused upon antisocial behavior, control of aggression, and validity indices, particularly the L scale. In this study T scores for 800 male and female police officer candidates on the PAI scales Negative Impression (NIM), Positive Impression (PIM), Antisocial-Antisocial Behaviors (ANTA), Antisocial-Egocentricity (ANTE), and Antisocial-Stimulus Seeking (ANTS) were used as predictors of the criterion variables Insubordination, Excessive Citizen Complaints, and Neglect of Duty. Highly significant coefficients were obtained for ANTE as a predictor of Insubordination and Excessive Citizen Complaints. For Neglect of Duty, two significant coefficients were obtained, one for ANTS and another for NIM. Discussion centered on the fact that egocentricity is a predictor of Insubordination and Excessive Citizen Complaints, and Neglect of Duty is related to stimulus seeking. Authors' Note: William U. Weiss, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Psychology, The University of Evansville, 1800 Lincoln Avenue, Evansville, IN 47722. Sarah Zehner is an undergraduate psychology major at The University of Evansville. Robert Davis, Ph.D., is executive vice-president and director of science, research, and development for Matrix, Inc., and Cary Rostow, Ph.D., is president of Matrix, Inc., Baton Rouge, LA. Emily DeCoster-Martin was an undergraduate psychology major at The University of Evansville at the time this paper was written.     

Employee assistance for law enforcement: A brief review

A brief review of the concept and practice of providing various services to police employees similar to those in private industry is presented. These include Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) that may be either internal or external in relation to the structure of the organization. Such efforts may also be found in law enforcement organizations. In addition, a hybrid model for law enforcement is examined. This involves a working alliance between an internal Peer Support Program and an external EAP. This model may provide immediate assistance to an otherwise resistant population and, in turn, pave the way for additional aid from mental health professionals. Confidentiality issues are presented. A brief review of recommended peer supporter characteristics is offered. Author Note: David B. Goldstein has been a police officer for approximately 25 years. He is presently The Chief of Police in Winthrop, MA. He retired from the NH State Police with the rank of Captain. He has a Ph.D. in Human Services/Criminal Justice, M.S. in Public Health, and a B.A. in Psychology. He is a Peer Supporter/Counselor, Crisis (Hostage) Negotiator, Polygraph Examiner, and Forensic Counselor. Chief Goldstein is a Fellow of the American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress and a Diplomate (Crisis Intervention & Forensic Traumatology) of the American College of Forensic Examiners, International.     

Decision to Know: City of Baton Rouge/Parish of East Baton Rouge v. Stephen C. Myers

Abstract

Stephen Myers was leasing a single‐family residential property in an area zoned A‐1 within the city of Baton Rouge, Louisiana, to four unrelated persons. Per Baton Rouge’s Unified Development Code (UDC) a “family” is defined as “an individual or two (2) or more persons who are related by blood, marriage or legal adoption living together . . . or not more than two (2) persons, or not more than four (4) persons (provided the owner lives on the premises rpar; living together by joint agreement. . . . ” (Myers at 9). In response, the city brought the action seeking to compel Myers to cease his alleged violation of the UDC, and Myers made a reconventional demand alleging the UDC’s definition of family was unconstitutional.     

Evaluating science outside the trial box: applying Daubert to the Federal Sentencing Guidelines' criminal history score

A limited amount of research exists examining the ability of the Criminal History Score of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines (Guidelines) to achieve one of its most essential objectives: prediction of recidivism. Building on the work of Schopp [Schopp, R. (2001). Competency, condemnation, and commitment: An integrated theory of mental health law. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association], it is suggested that the scientific admissibility framework and the underlying principles announced by the United States Supreme Court in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceutical [Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Inc., 507 U.S. 579, 113 S.Ct. 2786 (1993)] should be expanded beyond the constraints of the evidentiary admissibility phase of trial and should apply to legislative and administrative rules that have: a) an empirically testable purpose and b) a substantial impact on the rights of individuals. Such an analysis offers a useful mechanism for understanding the strengths and weaknesses of social science being used by legal institutions. Based upon a hypothetical Daubert analysis, the scientific validity of the Guidelines' Criminal History Score is assessed and demonstrated to be insufficient. The law and policy implications of this finding are discussed.     

BOOK REVIEW DEPARTMENT

Books reviewed in this article:
THE LEGAL ENVIRONMENT OF BUSINESS, Second Edition ROBERT N. CORLEY and ROBERT L. BLACK, New York, N.Y., McGraw-Hill, 1968, pp. 762, §9.95.
THE END OF OBSCENITY CHARLES REMBAR, New York, Random House, 1968, pp. 528, §8.95.
EMORY BUCKNER MARTIN MAYER, New York, Harper & Row, 1968, pp. 293, §7.95.
LAWYERS' ETHICS: A SURVEY OF THE NEW YORK CITY BAR JEROME E. CARLIN, New York, Russell Sage Foundation, 1966, xxix, pp. 267, §6.95.
DECADE OF DECISION G. THEODORE MITAU, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1967, pp. 234, §5.95.
THE SUPREME COURT FROM TAFT TO WARREN ALPHEUS THOMAS MASON, Baton Rouge, La., Louisiana State University Press, 1968, pp. 282, §6.95.     

Forensic Psychological Expertise in the Wake of Daubert

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. established guidelines for screening the admissibility of scientific evidence and overruled the Frye general acceptance doctrine. Guidelines more akin to those advocated by psychologists to assess the trustworthiness of the expert testimony were established in light of the Federal Rules of Evidence on the reliability, relevance, and prejudicial or probative nature of the information. Forensic psychological experts will have to be explicit about the scientific foundations of their opinions. The more flexible formula for the admission of scientific evidence may exert greater quality control than the Frye test, and enhance the relationship of psychology and law by eliminating some sources of controversy within the professional community over expert witnesses. Research needs flowing from the new standards are identified. Administrative Judge with the United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in Southern California, and a Mediator and Arbitrator with Judicial Arbitration and Mediation Services/Endispute     

Police systems and systems thinking: An interpretive approach to understanding complexity

To start a dialog with police and criminal psychologists concerning systems theory and policing, the authors are presenting the following paper. This paper shares their thinking about systems theory as it might apply to policing. The paper draws upon specific examples from one of the twenty largest police departments in the United States. These examples include: race relations, domestic violence legislation, financing, and developing specialized units. The authors present some of the major concepts associated with systems thinking. They selected—context, valid information, relationships, shared meaning, attractors and agents. In addition, there are recommendations for future direction of dialog and research. Authors' Note: A. Steven Dietz, Ph.D., is an Instructor with Texas State University at San Marcos in the Department of Criminal Justice. Oscar Mink, Ed.D., was Professor of Adult and Human Resources Development Leadership at the University of Texas at Austin until his death in September of 2004. He was licensed as a psychologist in both Texas and New York. He authored or co-authored 14 books and over 200 articles, monographs, and psychological assessment instruments. He founded a correctional counseling institute program at West Virginia University as a visible part of the Division of Clinical Studies that he directed. He had 14 years direct work experience in various aspects of criminal justice at the Federal, State and community level. Dr. Mink consulted with the Austin Police Department on issues related to executive coaching and organizational development.     

Finding and using technology-specific expertise

Successful technology transfer depends on the skills and knowledge of those who must implement new or rapidly advancing technologies. Often, new systems and technologies are delivered without proper preparation of the intended users. Thorough documentation is only part of the solution-during development, many important and technology-specific lessons are learned. These include problem diagnosis, troubleshooting techniques, and strategies for optimum utilization. Many such skills develop in response to incidents that occur during testing and evaluation and are rarely incorporated into formal documentation or instructional materials. Yet they can make the difference between skilled satisfied users and frustrated non-users. Gary A. Klein, who received his Ph.D. in experimental psychology at the University of Pittsburgh in 1969, is chairman and chief scientist of Klein Associates Inc. (Fairborn, OH) an R&D company he founded in 1978 to do work in applied cognitive psychology. His principal research area is methods of knowledge elicitation that reflect the perceptual-cognitive aspects of expertise. He previously worked at the US Air Force Human Resources Laboratory. Beth Crandall holds a dual appointment as research associate and director of operations at Klein Associates Inc., which she joined in 1986. Her research interests include expert knowledge and decisionmaking skills, and methods for eliciting this information. She received her BS in psychology from Wright State University in 1978.     

Whatever Gets you Through the Night: Officer Coping Strategies after the High-Profile Line of Duty Deaths in Dallas and Baton Rouge

The policing profession has recently experienced events that affected officers across the nation. Several high-profile cases involving police and members of minority communities intensified the tensions among these groups. Amid public criticisms of policing, law enforcement officers have become targets of attacks. Multiple cases of officer ambushes and assassinations have further troubled the already stressful occupational position of law enforcement. This study investigates what coping strategies officers used after the deadly attacks on police in Dallas, Texas and Baton Rouge, Louisiana that occurred in July, 2016. We also investigate how the coping strategies used affects job motivation among officers. Our findings suggest officers turned to three coping strategies: support networks, stoic self-help, and self-medication. These coping strategies were found to be ineffective mechanisms for protecting officer job motivation; however, some strategies adversely affected motivation more than others. Understanding how officers are coping and why effective strategies are not being employed adequately is imperative for both the safety of officers and the public.     

Using the good cop/bad cop profile with the MMPI-2

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) has been widely used in a variety of ways to screen candidates for law enforcement positions. This study extends the use of the MMPI Good Cop/Bad Cop (GC/BC) profile (Blau, Super, & Brady, 1993) to the MMPI-2. The MMPI-2 profiles of 39 veteran police officers were used to predict their performance (No Apparent Problems, Borderline, or Serious Problems Possible), and these predictions were compared with supervisors’ ratings of the officers’ actual performance. The MMPI-2 predictions were accurate for 46% of the officers, a rate that was significantly better than chance (p=.024). Based on the current data, the best selection outcome would be obtained by accepting officers whose MMPI-2 profiles place them in the No Apparent Problems or Borderline groups, and rejecting officers whose profiles suggest Serious Problems Possible. This could be accomplished simply by rejecting any officer who obtained a score above 65T on any of the clinical scales. This selection strategy would have resulted in the acceptance of 22 officers, 19 of whom were highly rated by their supervisors, and the rejection of 17 officers, 11 of whom were rated as borderline or poorer by their supervisors. It would also result in the erroneous rejection of 6 officers who were highly rated by supervisors. AUTHOR NOTE: An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1994 annual meeting of the Society for Police and Criminal Psychology, in Roswell, New Mexico. The authors wish to thank Jim Herndon, Ph.D., for this comments on this study.     

The neighborhood enhancement team: Contemporary initiatives in community-oriented policing

Determined to combat high levels of crime in two neighborhoods, a southern city implemented the Neighborhood Enhancement Team (NET) to focus on gang and drug activity through a combination foot and bicycle patrol. With the support and assistance of the community and its various agencies, the program's initiatives and outcomes have been successful. Compared to arrest rates before the implementation of NET, the communities experienced declining arrest numbers far surpassing those of national trends: The total number of arrests for these two communities over the first five years of NET implementation declined by 40%. Furthermore, the annual arrest numbers are continuing their downward trend. Since the inception of the NET program, many youth are now choosing alternatives to gang affiliations, and as a result, social order is returning to the communities. It is the purpose of this article to delineate those initiatives and present findings of the outcomes. Authors' Note: Ferris Byxbe, Ph.D., is Associate Professor, Director of Criminal Justice and Graduate Coordinator, in the Division of Social Sciences, Criminal Justice Program, Delta State University, Cleveland, MS 38733. Philip Carlan, Ph.D., is Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work & Criminal Justice, University of North Alabama, Florence.     

Adolescent satanist: A sensible law enforcement approach

A considerable amount of attention has been given by the media to the perceived increase in the amount of juvenile Satanic involvement. However, there is very little evidence of a national epidemic of this type of criminal activity. This article discusses the types of actual adolescent involvement seen in the United States as well as the various points of view on this topic. It is hoped that this information will assist law enforcement in their understanding of this phenomenon and better prepare them to handle it. Dr. Gordon A. Crews is a member of the Criminal Justice faculty in the Social & Behavioral Sciences Department of Midlands Technical College in Colombia, South Carolina, where he teaches courses in police administration, corrections, criminology and ethics. He earned a Ph.D. in Elementary Education, a Graduate Certificate in Alcohol & Drug Studies and a Bachelor of Science and Masters degrees in Criminal Justice from the University of South Carolina. His dissertation examined historical perspectives of school disturbance in the United States. Prior to teaching, Dr. Crews worked in law enforcement as a bloodhound officer & trainer, field training officer and criminal investigatior; in corrections as a training and accreditation manager; and in insurance fraud as an investigator. His current research and academic interests include issues surrounding juvenile delinquency, school violence and juvenile arbitration. He has most recently co-authored a textbook entitledFaces of Violence in America, published by Simon & Schuster. Dr. Reid H. Montgomery, Jr., is an Associate Professor in the College of Criminal Justice at the University of South Carolina and co-author of five books. He joined the USC faculty after service as a federal Probation officer with the U.S. District Court in Washington, D.C., under Chief Judge John J. Sirica. Prior to graduate study, he served on active duty with the 3rd Infantry (Old Guard) at Ft. Meyer, Virginia. He has a B.S., M.Ed., and Ph.D. from the University of South Carolina where his dissertation analyzed attitudes leading to prison riots. Named in 1984 as Educator of the Year by the Southern Association of Criminal Justice Educators, Dr. Montgomery has pursued post-doctoral study at George Washington University in Washington, D.C.     

Spanish Language Training for Law Enforcement Officers: Study Aid Use,Motivation, and Need to Use Correlate with Vocabulary Retention

Job-related Spanish courses are available across the country for a variety of professions. Blandino and Rivardo (Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 21(2):68–82, 2006) assessed the effectiveness of the Officer Safety and Communication Spanish Level I (OSCSLI) (Alentado 1995) course for law enforcement officers, but did not have data beyond 6-months post course and were unable to fully assess potential benefits of study aid use. In a follow-up study, 200 law enforcement officers completed a questionnaire and quiz up to 10 years following course completion. Those who used study aids had higher quiz scores than those who did not. Multiple regression analyses indicated that past need to use Spanish and motivation to learn Spanish were significant predictors of quiz performance, further supporting long term course effectiveness.