一九八五年美国出口管制法(修正案)

<正> 1985年7月12日,美国总统里根签署了1985年出口管制修正法案。该法对调整美国出口商品的主要贸易法,1979年的出口管制法作了修正和再授权,尽管1985年的出口管制法会使得出口控制更难以管理,但它代表了美国商业界的一项重大成就,将有利于美国的经济。1985年的出口管制法,修改了1979年的出口管制法,并将其延长至1989年。卡特政府颁布的1979年出口管制法试图通过一种许可证手续和特殊出口限制的混合方法,来控制美国的     

美国商业外层空间法律制度述评

美国商业外层空间活动已经持续深入发展30年,相关产业的规模和效益领先全球.与此相适应,美国商业外层空间活动的法治化也达到了其他国家在短时间内难以企及的高度.美国调整商业外层空间活动的法律制度主要涉及管理机制、许可制度、责任与保险制度和出口管制等内容.通过创造公开透明的竞争环境,上述法律规范和制度体系满足了外层空间产业持续发展的需要,促进了商业外层空间活动的繁荣发展,具有重要的参考价值.但是,其中严苛复杂的出口管制制度已经落后于时代要求,在落实国际义务方面亦存在不足之处.总体而言,美国商业外层空间法律制度对于中国未来的空间立法具有重要的借鉴意义,在该领域开展双边合作也是中国积极参与塑造国际空间秩序的有效途径.     

论信息安全与创新政策的平衡——以美国对加密技术的立法管制为视角

加密技术是影响信息安全的核心技术,掌握加密技术的创新,在一定程度上就等于实现信息安全和获取信息优势。美国利用自己发达的和不断进化的法律体系,采取抑制加密技术创新和管制加密技术及其制成品出口的平衡策略,始终占据信息社会的制高点,以实现自己"独享"信息安全,维护信息优势和信息霸权的战略目标。     

环境管制标准在侵权法上的效力解释

学者从矫正正义视角作出的研究只能部分解释实践中环境管制标准在侵权法上的效力。以风险控制为视角,环境管制与侵权责任均可视为风险控制的工具,它们分别在不同方面具有各自的功能优势。为充分利用二者的双边优势,环境管制与侵权责任应当保持制度上的合作。当环境管制标准能够达到社会最优标准时,侵权责任将作为“查漏机制”弥补环境管制标准的执行不足。这要求法院充分尊重管制标准,并承认合规抗辩的效力。当环境管制只能设定最低限度的“门槛性”标准时,侵权责任将作为“补缺机制”弥补管制标准的设计不足,法院因此要为排污企业“量身定做”最佳的行为谨慎标准,并在必要时否认合规抗辩的效力。由此形成的制度合作框架从根本上解决了环境管制标准的侵权法效力问题,并能够对相关法律现象作出全面解释。     

浅析冷战初期美国对华经济政策

冷战初期,美国对西欧实施经济复兴,对社会主义国家实施经济管制。新中国建立后,美国先后通过NSC41、NSC48两份文件,确立了对华经济遏制政策——出口管制。朝鲜战争爆发,尤其是中国参战后,美国将其升级为全面禁运,给中美经济关系带来了灾难性后果。     

出口卡特尔的豁免与管制

出口卡特尔在出口层面对竞争的限制作用主要影响的是进口国市场,因此,在出口国反垄断法普遍对其给予豁免的同时,进口国反垄断法则会依据"合理原则"对其进行审查、制裁。我国现行《反垄断法》对出口卡特尔的规定过于简单、模糊,在豁免程序以及制裁措施方面有待进一步完善,而未来出口卡特尔的立法趋势则应该是对其采取普遍禁止的态度。     

管制性征收主导判断规则的形成——对美国联邦最高法院典型判例的评介

管制性征收制度肇始于美国,通过梳理联邦最高法院关于管制性征收的典型判例可以发现,以"价值减损程度"为核心的两要素标准,结合特定事实审查,已成为判断管制性征收的主导性标尺。管制行为导致相对人合法权益受损的问题在我国也已大量出现,从美国私人财产权保护运作中汲取有益因素,可以对解决中国的征收问题有所启发。     

出租车数量管制的行政法分析——以北京市出租车行业为例

北京市自1993年起对出租车进行数量管制,据相关文件以及特许方式的分析,数量管制的措施是不合法的,也不符合比例原则。然而,有关数量管制的不合法文件却未得到有效清理,且我国《行政诉讼法》将抽象行政行为排除于司法审查的范围之外,使得交管局在处理申请出租车经营许可时,其管制行为依然有"法"可依,即便该管制行为严重限制了公民的经济自由。鉴此,应该尽快制定和修改相关法律、法规,逐步放开数量管制,对出租车行业实行严格的资质准入,以实现出租车行业的发展。     

管制性征收的请求权基础

所谓"管制性征收",是指政府在对经济社会诸领域进行管制时,由于过分限制了公民的财产权而造成对公民财产事实上的征收。管制性征收是一种"反向征收",它因公民对政府管制行为合法性和合宪性的挑战而出现。请求权基础对于公民面对管制性征收获得救济具有决定意义。美国公民可以基于宪法中的"征收条款"或者"补偿条款"提出对政府管制行为的挑战,德国公民只能依据《基本法》的规定请求法院判决政府管制行为无效。在中国,根据《立法法》和《行政诉讼法》等法律的规定,公民关于管制性征收的请求权基础是相当模糊的。     

从摩根大通案看美国《公司合规计划评估》新近发展

2017年至今,美国《公司合规计划评估》经历过两次修订,及时提示联邦检察官在开展合规调查和审查时应关注的要素,乃美国关于企业合规文件的集大成者。摩根大通公司签订的暂缓起诉协议反映出《公司合规计划评估》新近发展,即比起与实际脱节的"书面合规",更加关注公司和关联实体是否能够随着时间的推移更新和修订合规计划。《公司合规计划评估》对我国构建标准化企业合规制度工具、突出涉案企业刑事合规制度中检察官主导地位、强化合规计划全面性和有效性审查等方面起参考借鉴作用。     

“Humanitarian aid is never a crime”: humanitarianism and illegality in migrant advocacy

I analyze the case of humanitarian pro-migrant activists in southern Arizona between 2000 and 2010 to explore how contending groups wield law and legality claims in a dynamic policy environment. Humanitarian activists both evade and engage the law. They appeal to a higher law to elude charges that they are acting illegally, while seeking assurances that their actions are within the law. Law enforcement agents rely on the authority and technical neutrality of the law in redefining humanitarian aid as illegal, while expanding their own claims to carry out humanitarian work. This case study of advocacy on behalf of “illegal” migrants highlights how both activists and those who enforce the law redefine legality in strategic ways.     

Consequences of Tit‐for‐Tat Enforcement: Toward a Hippocratic Principle of Regulatory Implementation

The article discusses when tit‐for‐tat enforcement, an important strategy in responsive regulation theory, may generate intended reactions in communities of regulatees. Combining insights from compliance motivation theory, responsive regulation theory, and ethnographic studies of compliance, I hypothesize that tit‐for‐tat enforcement's probability of success depends on regulators’ institutionalized capacity to promote law–morality correspondence. Building such institutionalized capacity—so‐called “embeddedness”—simultaneously increases requirements for inspectorates’ competence. This article addresses three forms of law–morality correspondence: moral support for the law's content, the legislator's authority, and harmony between legal and moral guilt criteria.     

General Deterrence and Corporate Environmental Behavior*

This research addresses the assumption that “general deterrence” is an important key to enhanced compliance with regulatory laws. Through a survey of 233 firms in several industries in the United States, we sought to answer the following questions: (1) When severe legal penalties are imposed against a violator of environmental laws, do other companies in the same industry actually learn about such “signal cases”? (2) Does knowing about “signal cases” change firms’ compliance‐related behavior? It was found that only 42 percent of respondents could identify the “signal case,” but 89 percent could identify some enforcement actions against other firms, and 63 percent of firms reported having taken some compliance‐related actions in response to learning about such cases. Overall, it is concluded that because most firms are in compliance already (for a variety of other reasons), this form of “explicit general deterrence” knowledge usually serves not to enhance the perceived threat of legal punishment, but as reassurance that compliance is not foolish and as a reminder to check on the reliability of existing compliance routines.     

我国反垄断执法机制的不足与完善

随着我国《反垄断法》正式实施,我国的反垄断法律体系建设加速。而建立一个权威、独立的执法机构是发挥反垄断法功效的关键。因此,反垄断执法机构的科学设置及其职责的合理确定是中国反垄断法制建设中的重要一环。目前,《反垄断法》为我国设计了三家联合执法的机制,权威性和独立性尤为不足。加之目前我国反垄断执法体制缺乏具体的分级设计,没有配套的实施细则,人员素质与结构不合理等等。诸多问题势必影响我国反垄断法的实施。因此,探讨中国反垄断执法机构的问题与不足,对于完善中国反垄断执法机构确有必要。     

非法实施发明专利入罪的认识误区及克服

加强专利权保护是形势使然。专利权具有无形性、公开性和非竞争性,容易受到侵害。专利民事司法保护存在刚性不足、赔偿数额认定难等局限。专利行政执法对效率的追求造成程序监督弱化。刑法具有制裁手段的严厉性和“二次保障性”特征,遏制专利侵权优势明显。以专利权系私权、专利权具有不确定性、专利案件审理存在技术性难题为由反对非法实施发明专利侵权入罪的主张并不成立。专利刑事立法应当从“权利救济”转向“法益救济”,重构有关专利犯罪客体,增设非法实施发明专利罪,把故意侵犯发明专利且情节严重的行为规定为犯罪。     

Civil money penalties: procedures for investigations,imposition of penalties,and hearings. Interim final rule; request for comments

This interim final rule establishes rules of procedure for the imposition, by the Secretary of Health and Human Services, of civil money penalties on entities that violate standards adopted by the Secretary under the Administrative Simplification provisions of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 ("HIPAA"). We intend that this be the first installment of a rule that we term the "Enforcement Rule." The Enforcement Rule, when issued in complete form, will set forth procedural and substantive requirements for imposition of civil money penalties. In the interim, we are issuing these rules of procedure to inform regulated entities of our approach to enforcement and to advise regulated entities of certain procedures that will be followed as we enforce the Administrative Simplification provisions of HIPAA.     

You can lead a horse to water …: A case study of a police department's response to stricter drunk-driving laws

We present a case study illustrating the complexity of the process that determines how vigorously local police agencies enforce recent drunk-driving laws. Police enforcement practices are influenced most strongly by the play of local factors in a system of “games.” The local forces exerting greatest influence are 1) the local demand for drunk-driving enforcement, 2) the police leadership's priority for DUI enforcement, 3) the police leadership's capacity for command and control of the organization, and 4) the disposition of the local police culture regarding drunk driving and related work issues. In “Melville,” the study site, there is little external demand for drunk-driving enforcement, and police management tries to suppress it while making only symbolic gestures of support. Management's capacity to control street-level enforcement practices is limited, however, and a small cadre of officers generates a disproportionate number of arrests for personal financial gain (bounty), giving the department a much higher arrest rate than the department desires. Thus Melville's responsiveness to the state's drunk-driving law is not due to external political pressure or formal policy, but rather to the inability of local authorities to impose their will on street-level practices. Melville's case suggests that the degree to which police implement a new criminal law may be entirely independent of efforts to ensure political accountability and organizational control.     

I volunteer to kidnap Oliver North

“I Volunteer to Kidnap Ollie North”, is an exercise in following our government's sometimes criminal, often bizarre and always hypocritical actions in the war on drugs during the Reagan-Bush years to their logical conclusion. The Supreme Court has indicated in its June, 1992 decision in U.S. v Machain, that American law enforcement officers can now enter the sovereign territories of other nations to legally abduct violators of U.S. drug laws. Iran immediately proclaimed that they had the same right for violations of Islamic law. What might happen if kidnapping becomes a recognized “tool” of international law enforcement? What prominent Americans might wake up in South American jails with bags over their heads?     

责令限期拆除行为的二元化建构及司法审查进路

责令限期拆除本是行政机关针对违法建设、违法占地行为常见的执法手段之一,但理论界和实务界对于责令限期拆除行为的性质以及可诉性存在较大争议。尽管《行政处罚法》(2021修订)第九条并未明确责令限期拆除是否属于行政处罚,但其第六项"法律、行政法规规定的其他行政处罚"作为兜底性条款为责令限期拆除的行政处罚性质保留了法律依据。基于责令限期拆除行为的"二元化"结构,若行政机关作出责令限期拆除行为居于行政执法程序的中间环节,则将其视为一种过程性的行政命令,不具有可诉性;若行政机关作出责令限期拆除行为居于行政执法程序的最终环节,无论其采取何种形式,均视为行政处罚,应当按照《行政处罚法》的规定履行查处程序并进行司法审查。     

Technological innovation in law enforcement

Using data from two studies an analysis was made of producers' involvement in marketing new law enforcement equipment and of how law enforcement organizations came to adopt/reject these products. In general, the new product system in law enforcement was seen as involving 1) producers using technologies developed in other sectors to make “new” products for law enforcement users who 2) tend to not actively search for new products but wait to be made aware of new product developments and who 3) tend to engage in limited testing procedures.