科学与法律领域的真相

审判过程并非仅仅是为了"查明真相"。自从美国的法律系统开始使用科学证人以来,法律领域就面临着混乱的局面。自从Frye规则到Daubert标准再到Kumho Tire标准,乃至发展为修改后的《联邦证据规则》702条,尽管法律系统经历了上述诸多努力,人们仍然不会相信法律系统能够从科学信息中获得预期的收益。科学主张和理论或真或假,它们的真或假是一个客观的问题。法律裁决可以断定法律真理为真,也可以断定"所谓的科学真理"为真。只有科学命题所描述的自然界现象和事件的性质——而非有关证据可靠性的法律裁决,也非法庭上的论证和交叉询问——能够证明真的科学命题为真,证明假的科学命题为假。     

“真”的有效性证明标准

并非所有被确证为“真”的事实命题都能作为法律推理的小前提(判决结论的事实依据)。作为法律推理的小前提的“真”的事实命题必须(一)是“有用的”,即符合实体法律规范,对得出当事人是否应当承担刑事责任、民事责任或行政责任具有实质意义的事实命题;(二)是“能用的”,即符合程序法律规范,将那些诸如通过“刑讯逼供”、“诱供”等严重违反程序法律规范的证据排除在定案证据之外,最大限度地保护诉讼当事人的合法权益不受非法侵害。“有用性”和“能用性”是“真”的有效性证明标准。     

论命题与经验证据和科学证据符合

在逻辑学上,证实与证明不同,证实只能显现一个命题之然,而证明则可以显现一个命题之所以然。法官要想获得一个完整的内心确信,不仅要知其然,而且必须知其所以然,因此,诉讼证明活动中,一个命题的核证性标准由真的证实标准和证明标准有机构成———命题与经验证据符合就是真的证实标准,命题与科学证据符合就是真的证明标准。与保证性标准意义下的真不同,这里的真总是自以为真,是感觉为真,具有相对性,是可错的。     

明清时期的“依法裁判”：一个伪问题？

明清时期的司法实践，既非简单的“法律裁决”，也非纯粹的“情理裁决”，而是由诸多原因导致了二者之间的紧张和融合，最终以“情法两尽”为目标和理想。通过辨析法律表达和解读司法案件可以发现，从类型角度来看，明清时期的司法属于“情法两尽”的裁决模式；就局部而言，司法官员在审理某些案件时，确实存在严格“依法裁决”的现象。据此，我们并不能将明清中国的“依法裁决”视作一个“伪问题”。     

选言判断及其语言表达

区分两种选言判断不能根据选言支事实上能否同真，而应当根据表达判断的语句形式，联结词是两种选言要判断语言形式的主要识别标志。日常语言中的“或者”虽有多义性，但当讨论它表达何种选言判断时，其多义性已经不存在了。选言联结词“或者”既不表示选言支“可以同真”，也不表示选言支“不可同真”，只表示选首支“至少有一真”。两种选言判断的区别点不在有没有断定选言支“可以同真”，而在有没有断定它们“仅有一真”，定义两种选言判断应以此为“种差”。“不相容选言判断”应改称“排斥的选言判断”，其定义应改为“断定选言支仅有一真的选言判断”；“相容选言判断”应改称“非排斥的选言判断”，其定义应改为“并未断定选言支仅有一真的选言判断”。     

行政许可与第三人的法律保护利益

一、问题之所在行政诉讼法第9条规定：“处分撤销之诉与裁决撤销之诉只限于与该处分或者裁决的撤销有法律上利益者提起。”那么，此处“法律上利益”应该如何理解？对此学说和判例已有了很多的讨论，这里就不再赘述。现在可以称之为通说的，要数最高法院关于“有法律利益者”的看法——     

试谈“暂缓执行”

（中华人民共和国治安管理处罚条例）第40条第二款规定：“被裁决拘留的人或者他的家属能够找到担保人或者按照规定交纳保证金的，在申诉和诉讼期间，原裁决暂缓执行。”笔者认为，这里的“原裁决暂缓执行”不妥，宜改为：原裁决可以暂缓执行。理由是：一、“暂缓执行”不利于迅速、及时地打击、震慑违法行为。《条例冲予以处罚的行为绝大多数为故意犯，只是违法程度尚未达到刑事处罚，但它的社会消极影响仅次于刑事犯罪。如果交纳有限的保证金就可以不被限制人身自由，将人身罚变为经济罚，以罚代法，亵读了法律。那么（条例》维护社会秩序…     

实体事实证明标准降低制度的建构与规制

一般性诉讼证明标准的确立,有助于统一司法裁判尺度,提升法律的安定性与可预测性。但是,一般性诉讼证明标准无法兼顾到全部诉讼案件的公正问题。针对其缺陷,可通过证明标准降低予以弥补。将待证事实为真的心证要求予以降低,可以起到减轻当事人证明责任负担的效果。证明标准降低的法律性质为证明责任减轻,不免除或者改变原来的证明责任的分配。证明标准降低,不是对一般性诉讼证明标准的否定,而是以其为前提下的例外规则,两者关系为“一般与例外”。建构符合我国民事诉讼理论传统及实践的证明标准降低模型,除了坚持“一般与例外”原则外,还应设置严格的适用条件,即确因案件事实本身性质造成证明困难且致实体审理结果显失公正;同时,应对其施以程度和程序上的双重规制,在程度上降低的下限为盖然性优势（超过50%）,在程序上及时公开降低的心证过程及结果并允许当事人论辩与上诉,以防止恣意裁判。     

论刑事诉讼中的"真实"

在认识论上,只存在客观事实与客观真理,不存在主观事实与主观真理。但在判断真理与事实的真实性上,却存在着客观真实与主观真实两种不同标准。客观真实的标准适用于对现存事实真实性的判断,主观真实的标准适用于对已逝事实真实性的判断。犯罪事实都是已逝的事实,因而不可能适用客观真实的标准。“法律真实说”指出了“客观真实说”的缺陷,意义重大,但它只指出了刑事诉讼证明标准的“行业”属性,并不是对刑事诉讼证明标准的准确概括。只有“主观真实说”符合刑事诉讼证明标准的本质属性。主观不等于主观主义,主观真实也不是主观臆断,它具有坚实的客观性基础。承认这一事实,并依照自由心证的特点完善我国的刑事证据规则,不仅不会导致主观主义,相反更有利于防止主观主义。     

真相与正义，探究与辩护，科学与法律

在美国法律文化塑造下的对抗制诉讼制度和科学的调查程序之间存在着紧张关系（tension），在法律所关注的裁决终局性（finality）和科学所追求的持续性纠错（oven—minded fallibilism）之间存在着紧张关系。长期以来，法律界都试图通过可采性法律规则归化科学证言，结果导致联邦法官担负起广泛的审查职责；近期，法庭指定专家的制度实践导致对抗制度做出某些修正，这种制度实践已经被批评为“带有纠问色彩”（inquisitorial），甚至“违背了民主的要求”（undemocratic）。在分析这些制度利弊的过程中，我们有必要考察其他法律系统的经验教训。     

Drugs in injured drivers in Denmark

As part of the project Impaired Motorists, Methods of Roadside Testing and Assessment for Licensing (IMMORTAL) under the European Commission's Transport RTD Programme of the 5th Framework Programme [I.M. Bernhoft, Drugs in accidents involved drivers in Denmark, D-R4.3 of the project Impaired Motorists, Methods Of Roadside Testing and Assessment for Licensing (IMMORTAL), www.immortal.or.at, 2005], a study regarding drugs in accident-involved drivers was carried out in Denmark. The main objectives of this study were: (1) to collect and analyse samples from injured drivers for the presence of drugs; (2) to give an indication whether drugs may have contributed to traffic accidents; and (3) to get information on the drug-positive drivers and their drug use. This paper focuses on objective 1. Injured drivers who were treated in hospital were asked to give a saliva sample, a blood sample or both. The samples were screened for the following substances: opiates, amphetamines, methamphetamines, incl. MDMA (ecstasy), cannabinoids and metabolites, cocaine and metabolites and benzodiazepines. Screenings were carried out by means of Cozart Microplate EIA kit. Positive screenings were confirmation analysed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) or liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS). In total, 26 out of 330 patients were confirmed positive for one or more of the six drug groups. However, three patients were excluded from the survey for various reasons. Of the remaining 23 drug-positive patients 15 were found positive for one drug group, and in five of these cases alcohol was present in a concentration over the legal limit in Denmark (0.05%). The other eight patients were found positive for two drug groups, and in four of these cases, alcohol was also present in a concentration over the legal limit. Alcohol was found both in combinations with medicinal drugs, with illegal drugs and with both. Based on the saliva or blood concentrations, we estimate that there is a strong suspicion of impairment in 9 out of 23 cases, and in another six cases it was likely that the drivers were impaired.     

Fatal poisoning in drug addicts in the Nordic countries in 2007

The frequency of medico-legally examined fatal poisonings in 2007 among drug addicts was investigated in five Nordic countries; Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. The number of deaths, age, sex, place of death, main intoxicant, and other drugs present in blood samples were recorded to obtain national and comparable Nordic data, as well as data to compare with earlier studies in 2002, 1997, and 1991. Norway had the highest incidence of drug addict deaths by poisoning followed by Denmark, with 8.24 and 6.92 per 100,000 inhabitants, respectively. The death rates in Finland (4.02), Iceland (4.56), and Sweden (3.53) were about half that of Norway and Denmark. Compared with earlier studies, the death rates were unchanged in Denmark and Norway, but increased in Finland, Iceland, and Sweden. In all countries, fewer deaths (29-35%) were recorded in the capital area compared with earlier studies. Females accounted for 11-19% of the fatal poisonings. Iceland deviates with a more equal distribution between men and women (40%). Deaths from methadone overdoses increased in all Nordic countries, and methadone was the main intoxicant in Denmark in 2007, accounting for 51% of the poisonings. In Norway and Sweden, heroin/morphine was still the main intoxicant with a frequency of 68% and 48%, respectively. In Iceland, 3 deaths each were due to heroin/morphine and methadone, respectively. Finland differs from other Nordic countries in having a high number of poisonings caused by buprenorphine and very few caused by heroin/morphine. The total number of buprenorphine deaths in Finland doubled from 16 in 2002 to 32 in 2007, where it constituted 25% of deaths. The general toxicological screening program showed widespread multi-drug use in all countries. The median number of drugs per case varied from 3 to 5. The most frequently detected substances were heroin/morphine, methadone, buprenorphine, tramadol, amphetamine, cocaine, tetrahydrocannabinol, benzodiazepines and ethanol.     

Trustees in Cyprus regulated in 2007

Trust and company service providers in Cyprus are followingin the footsteps of their European counterparts and will toobe regulated at the beginning of 2007.     

Differences in female and male involvement in lethal violence in Russia

Relatively little is known of the distributions of homicide event characteristics in non-Western nations in which women relative to men are involved. This article utilizes unique homicide narratives drawn from Russian court and police records to compare homicide victim, offender, and event characteristics by sex of victim and separately by sex of offender. Results from logistic regression show that homicides in which a female was the victim or offender were more likely to occur between intimates and to occur in the home, whereas homicides involving males were more likely to occur in a public place, to be alcohol-related, to involve a firearm, and to involve a victim and offender who did not know each other well. These results not only present an important first glimpse at women as homicide victims and offenders in Russia specifically, but also provide a point of comparison with findings from similar analyses undertaken in the West, and present further initial observations upon which to construct a cohesive theory about female involvement in serious violent events.     

Trends in Non-Muslim Divorces in Singapore

This article examines the trends and patterns in the way thesecular divorce law has been utilized by couples in Singaporeseeking to end their marriage. Social and demographic featuresof the divorcing couples, as well as the ‘fact’relied on in support of their divorce petitions, are studiedand compared to earlier analyses. It is found that while somepatterns observed by earlier researchers have remained intact,others have changed. This article suggests explanations forthese observed patterns and contributes to the discussion onwhether and how the divorce law can be improved in Singaporeand elsewhere.     

论述二十世纪九十年代美国的犯罪问题

在20世纪90年代,犯罪已成为美国社会所面临的一个严峻的问题。集团、枪支、烈性酒、毒品是引发犯罪的重要因素。各类犯罪影响了美国社会的正常秩序,给受害者带来了物质和精神上的痛苦。研究20世纪90年代美国的犯罪问题可以为我国今天打击、预防犯罪提供一些借鉴。     

癫痫的神经病理学研究进展

癫是一种常见的脑疾病,可引起猝死,以往人们侧重于对癫脑电活动的研究,而近年来癫的神经病理学研究已成为临床和法医工作者的一个研究热点。本文依据一系列文献资料分别从癫的发育障碍、瘤性异常增殖、海马硬化、双重病理改变、苔藓纤维发芽等神经病理学变化方面进行综述,进而探讨其法医学意义,希望对癫猝死的法医病理学诊断提供一定的帮助。