性骚扰行为的司法及私法规制论纲

在现行法的框架下,司法应该且能够以私法手段对性骚扰行为加以规制。性骚扰行为无法列举穷尽,应当授权法官根据上述特点自由裁量。性骚扰行为本身是多种行为的集合,因此,不同的性骚扰行为侵犯的是不同的权利。从司法角度而言,由于我国现行法没有规定贞操权,可以通过对一般人格权的解释来论证性骚扰侵犯了一般人格权。同时,也可以从法律规定的现有具体人格权出发,认定性骚扰同时构成对身体权、健康权、人身自由权及人格尊严权等多种权利的侵犯。就解释论而言,雇员遭受性骚扰,雇主应当根据《人身损害赔偿解释》第9条和第11条的规定承担雇主责任。就立法论而言,性骚扰行为的雇主责任应当适用于劳动关系、人事关系以及公务员与国家机关之间的关系。     

性骚扰的法律探析

在国外 ,许多国家都通过立法来解决性骚扰问题 ,其中还特别规定了雇主对工作环境中的性骚扰行为负有责任 ;而在我国 ,尽管性骚扰己为人们所关注 ,但法律迄今仍没有对性骚扰作出明确的规定。笔者以为性骚扰会对女性造成多方面的损害 ,我国法律应尽早对其概念和性质进行界定并禁止性骚扰。本文对性骚扰的含义进行了研究 ,认为性骚扰在我国有广义和狭义两个范畴的理解 ,并在此基础上提出了我国防治性骚扰的立法对策。     

职场性骚扰案件的证明责任研究——兼从推定角度谈举证责任分担

职场性骚扰案件的可归责性证明分为两个阶段被控骚扰行为对加害人的可归责性证明以及被控骚扰行为对雇主的可归责性证明。前者是两种类型性骚扰案件证明的必经阶段;后者则仅存在于受害者雇员主张敌意环境型性骚扰时。前者遵循"谁主张,谁举证"的一般规则;后者则有所不同。在敌意环境型性骚扰发生的场合,雇主责任是一种推定责任,要求雇主对其不存在过错承担举证责任,即实行举证责任倒置。     

破产可撤销行为构成要件分析——针对我国新《企业破产法》第31条、32条规定

破产可撤销行为构成要件是破产撤销权行使的前提和基础.我国新《企业破产法》为了规制破产欺诈行为,①保护破产债权人利益,在第31条和32条规定了破产管理人的撤销权和破产可撤销行为,②但是没有明确破产可撤销行为的构成要件,如此规定不利于破产司法实践中法官和当事人对破产可撤销行为的认定.借鉴联合国《破产法立法指南草案》和国外立法经验,破产可撤销行为构成要件应采纳概括性一般构成要件和列举性具体构成条件相结合的立法体例;一般性构成要件包括:"行为损害了债权人利益"和"行为应当发生在法律规定的临界期内";至于"行为人主观恶意"只是部分可撤销行为构成条件;同时,对"行为人主观恶意"的判断应建立美国破产法"主观标准客观化"的立法模式.     

性骚扰立法的比较研究——兼论中国反性骚扰法之设计

性骚扰是一个影响面极其广泛的社会问题,在西方世界较早引起人们的关注。美国、澳大利亚等资本主义发达国家通过制定法或判例确立了反性骚扰的诸多原则,对世界上其他国家的类似立法颇具借鉴意义。在我国,性骚扰问题引起人们热烈讨论是近几年的事,立法相对滞后。在解决人类面临的相同问题时,法律作为最后的选择往往具有其优越之处。借鉴乃至移植已有的先进立法及其精神不失为一种良策。为此,笔者在分析比较主要国家的相关立法之后,提出制定与完善我国反性骚扰法的管见,以期抛砖引玉。     

美国工作场所性骚扰雇主民事责任之研究

工作场所性骚扰在美国被认为是性别歧视行为和对妇女平等工作、就业权的侵害行为,包括交换利益性骚扰和敌意工作环境性骚扰两种形式。对于交换利益性骚扰,雇主应承担严格责任;对于敌意工作环境性骚扰,应根据性骚扰者属管理者或职员的不同身份,适用不同的归责原则,但雇主得以自己无过错而提出抗辩。美国联邦法院通过合理的证据规则、专家证人制度以及惩罚性赔偿制度的运用,更有利于对受害人的保护。     

就业领域内的性骚扰及其法律规制

性骚扰是一种广泛存在于社会领域中的非法现象，性骚扰问题进入劳动法视野，并不是基于性骚扰本身，而是基于性骚扰与劳动领域发生了联系。就业领域的性骚扰需要符合两个条件：一是性骚扰的存在，二是性骚扰的发生与就业相关。从某种程度上说，消除性骚扰是消除性别歧视、实现劳动者就业平等不可分割的组成部分。劳动者享有工作环境权，即劳动者享有在安全的工作环境中工作的权利。由于性骚扰的存在，工作环境不再安全。性骚扰的认定应当采取主观和客观相结合的标准。受害人的某些行为可能会影响到性骚扰的存在、变化以及相应的法律责任的承担。封于就业领域发生的性骚扰。用人单位应当承担相应的法律责任。应当借鉴其他国家和地区已有的理论研究和立法经验，完善我国的性骚搔立法。     

论我国性骚扰的立法司法及完善

美国法学家凯瑟琳.麦金侬是提出性骚扰概念的第一人,美国是最早对性骚扰司法干预的国家。2005年8月我国《妇女权益保障法》将禁止性骚扰纳入了法律,但对性骚扰并没有界定。各地制定的《妇女权益保障法》实施办法中,对禁止性骚扰作了进一步的规定,如北京规定,禁止违背妇女意志,以具有性内容或者与性有关的语言、文字、图像、电子信息、肢体行为等形式对妇女实施性骚扰;用人单位、公共场所经营管理单位应当根据情况采取措施,预防和制止对妇女的性骚扰。本文认为,法律目前只调整对女性的性骚扰是可以理解的,建议对性骚扰的判断采取主客观相结合的标准,性骚扰应以侵权行为法调整,法律对职场性骚扰问题应有充分的考虑。     

职场性骚扰雇主责任的法经济学分析

职场性骚扰雇主责任就是雇主要为其雇员的性骚扰行为负责任。通过法经济学的分析,对于监督管理者雇员实施的交换型性骚扰雇主承担严格责任;对于敌意环境型性骚扰雇主承担过错责任。这对预防与抑制职场性骚扰更有效率,同时,可以使社会成本降到最低。     

性骚扰案件面临的困惑与立法建议

性骚扰行为是侵犯妇女人身权的行为之一。我国虽有一些原则性规定,但有限的立法并未对性骚扰行为做出准确而又可操作的界定,性骚扰案件面临着许多困惑。当务之急是完善立法,要通过界定性骚扰的概念、完善性骚扰的责任制度、修改劳动法等相关法律,增设性骚扰规制条款等,为防治性骚扰提供有力的法律武器。     

Are Men Sexually Harassed? If So,by Whom?

Research on sexual harassment has recently expanded to include examination of men's experiences. Such research, however, has ignored the power dynamics involved in sexual harassment and typically assumed exclusively heterosexual situations. We examine legal cases illustrating the many forms that male–male harassment may take and the complex array of situations in which such harassment occurs. We then report the frequencies of experiences of harassment in three large samples of working men as well as the sex of the perpetrators of the harassment. Finally, we examine men's evaluations of these situations to determine the degree to which they found them to be harassing in a psychological sense. Our results indicate that men experience potentially sexually harassing behaviors from other men at least as often as they do from women; however, men in all samples reported relatively few negative reactions to these experiences. Future research should examine the predictors and outcomes of such situations to clarify the meaning of such behavior for male targets.     

Changing Perceptions of Sexual Harassment in the Federal Workforce, 1987–94

Recent criticisms of sexual harassment law and workplace training policies contend that they have "sanitized" the workplace through their stigmatization of sexual expression that does not amount to actual discrimination. This study assesses some of the empirical foundations for those normative arguments. Using data from the U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board's 1987 and 1994 surveys, we examine differences over time in federal workers' perceptions of what types of behavior constitute sexual harassment. The article draws on a sociolegal theory of the endogenous nature of law as well as research on perceptions of sexual harassment. We hypothesize that, because of increased attention to sexual harassment, and to the hostile environment theory specifically, by scholars, judges, and the news media, and related policy changes in workplace training programs, federal workers likely came to view a wider range of sexual conduct as constituting harassment during this time period. The results support our expectations. We also find that sexual harassment training in their agency increased workers' likelihood of viewing both hostile environment behavior and quid pro quo behavior as harassment.     

Injustice Frames, Legality, and the Everyday Construction of Sexual Harassment

This paper examines the frames that women use to understand their experience with sexual harassment. While legal frames do provide crucial guidance to women evaluating the behavior of their colleagues and supervisors, working women deployed a number of other interpretive frames when deciding whether they had been harmed by such behavior. Some of those frames emerge from feminist messages about discrimination and male abuse of power in the workplace; some emerge from management ideology that emphasizes efficiency and productivity; and some emerge from the criticism of sexual harassment policies as an unnecessary limitation on women's sexual freedom. But feeling a sense of harm does not automatically translate into the use of the label sexual harassment . Rather, women also employed an objective standard that compared their experience to some threshold of harassing behaviors. Only when the behaviors met this standard of offensiveness and were perceived as harmful did women consider their experiences sexual harassment.     

The impact of increasing vs. decreasing harassing behaviours on perceptions of hypothetical instances of repeated sexual harassment

ABSTRACT

Sexual harassment is a traditionally underreported crime. One factor that might affect perceptions and willingness to report harassment is its occurrence over time: harassing behaviours that gradually increase or decrease in severity over time might impact its perception. In the present research, 177 female participants read a series of daily scenarios about increasing, decreasing, or steady harassment, and completed measures regarding their perceptions of and willingness to report it. Participants displayed increases and decreases in negative reactions as harassment increased and decreased, respectively, suggesting that each instance of sexual harassment is interpreted independently of earlier harassing behaviours, and that early, strongly harassing behaviours have little impact on how subsequent instances of harassment are perceived. This explanation is supported by the similar ratings in the midpoint (day 4) of the scenario series, regardless of whether harassment was increasing or decreasing.     

Approaches to Gender and the Law: Research and Applications

Three paradigms for gender research are reviewed, illustrated by examples from employment discrimination law to highlight issues in research on gender and the law. Next, an agenda for research on gender, social science, and the law is outlined, and the five articles in this special issue are reviewed in terms of that agenda. Finally, research ideas for the future and practical applications of the research presented in the five articles are considered, specifically, the use of the reasonable woman standard and expert testimony in sexual harassment cases, and the influence of sex roles and sex stereotypes in producing gender effects.     

PTSD symptoms and sexual harassment: the role of attributions and perceived control

Researchers have compiled significant evidence demonstrating that sexual harassment leads to psychological harm, including the full symptom picture of PTSD, but few have examined the psychological processes involved. Research on attributions among trauma victims would suggest that causal attributions and perceptions of control may be important predictors of outcomes. The authors discuss a study involving a path model that used data from 189 women involved in sexual harassment litigation. Results indicate that both self-blame and harasser blame were positively related to PTSD symptoms. Control over recovery and the perception that future harassment is unlikely were both related to fewer PTSD symptoms. Unexpectedly, perceived control over future harassment is related to higher levels of PTSD symptoms. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

An administrative dilemma: Sexual harassment and liability

Conservative estimates suggest that 40% of working women and 15% of their male counterparts have experienced some form of sexual harassment; and law enforcement personnel are no exception. Police officers are expected to adhere to the highest ethical standards and are subjected to greater public scrutiny than civilians. With criminal and civil remedies readily available to deter police misconduct, police agencies should be establishing policies that take a strong, pro-active stance against sexual harassment in the workplace. Surprisingly, though, 34% of police agencies in this country are still without formal policies regulating such behavior. This article is a guide to the legislation and case law that regulates those behaviours. Recommendations for policy formulation and implementation also are included. sexual harassment in the workplace presents a clear and present danger to law enforcement agencies. A recent survey found that thirty-four percent of law enforcement agencies in the United States have yet to formulate a written sexual harassment policy.     

The Effects of Prior Workplace Behavior on Subsequent Sexual Harassment Judgments

A dual processing model of sexual harassment judgments predicted that the behavior of a complainant in a prior case would influence evaluations in an unrelated subsequent case. In the first of two experimental scenarios depicting social-sexual conduct at work, the female complainant's conduct was manipulated to be aggressive, submissive, ambiguous, or neutral. Half of the participants were asked to reflect upon the first scenario after reading it and before answering responsibility questions. The other half simply reviewed the scenario and answered the questions. When the complainant acted aggressively, her behavior in the first scenario caused men who reflected on the fact pattern to find less evidence of harassment. Most interestingly, an aggressive complainant observed in the first scenario caused participants (especially women) to rate lower the likelihood that a neutral complainant in a second independent case was the victim of gender discrimination. Across cases, men found less evidence of harassment than did women.     

性骚扰防治对策探析

性骚扰危害受害人的身心健康，影响婚姻关系的建立与稳定，影响职业发展、造成经济损失，扰乱社会秩序。我国现行法律在不同的立法层面上明确了反对性骚扰的法律原则，妇女权益保障法又将性骚扰纳入了法律范畴，但没有关于性骚扰的专门立法；现行法律规定过于原则、笼统、空泛，缺乏可操作性；法律规定不周全、不延续。应加强立法，填补法律空白，并在刑法典中增设“性骚扰罪”的有关规定；建立起性骚扰的社会预防和防治机制。