吐鲁番回鹘文买卖契约分析

吐鲁番出土的蒙元时期回鹘文买卖契约 ,在订立过程中除买卖双方外 ,尚有保人、证人、书契人等相关人参加。在当时 ,证人是必具的 ,一般有多个 ;保人则较少见 ,且所保内容有限。卖方的所有权问题是关注的焦点 ,故契约中往往要提到“有权提出所有权争议的第三人” ,因而卖方在契约中必须有所有权不存在瑕疵的声明或公示 (买方的声明则是从另一个角度的强调 ) ,并要作出所有权瑕疵担保。这些问题是当时买卖契约的实质性内容 ,对认识蒙元时代吐鲁番地区买卖契约的法律性质具有重要意义。     

论事实上的契约关系——对第三法域的探索

“事实上的契约关系”是一个在国际范围内争论较大的问题。作者认为,应当将这一问题置于“社会法”这一第三法域来加以认识。随着社会关系被纳入三个层次的调整模式．当事人之间的个别契约只是作为社会关系调整过程中的一个片断而存在。由于当事人之间的协商空间被大大压缩．事实过程也能产生契约关系,触发一种受到社会法保护的法律关系。     

社会契约与国家理性

国家理性也即国家的正当理性,它涉及国家的建构、国家的目标以及国家的保存等诸多重大政治、法律问题,而启蒙时期的社会契约理论,正是围绕为何要有国家、国家如何正当等方面予以解答的学说。在启蒙思想家看来,国家的存在符合人们的本性,国家的产生源于人们的理性选择,人们造就的国家体现了公共的集体人格。有关国家理性的内容,社会契约理论从国家的正当性、国家的道德性、国家的公道性、国家的中立性等方面进行了阐述。在现代社会中,为了使社会契约论规制下的国家品性得以维持,提倡公民德性和加强公民美德的培养,是其中最为关键的内容之一。     

契约履行的保障

“契约必须遵守”是一个古老的法律命题。传统的法学观点认为保障契约履行的主要是道德、国家权力、社会舆论等,这些都没揭示出保障契约履行的本质基础。本文从法律经济学的角度揭示了契约订立、契约履行中的利益机制,从而科学地回答了这一问题,保障契约履行的根本原因是契约中的利益机制。     

弱势群体保护的社会契约分析

社会契约的“订立”旨在使人类摆脱“自然状态”进入“社会状态”;作为国家“存在原理”,社会契约主旨是解决个人、社会和国家之间的权利与义务问题,其终极关怀是人民的福祉——保障安全、自由、财富和尊严等。但这些可欲的价值的实现须符合一种正义的原则和道德要求:平等对待和惠及包括弱势群体在内的社会合作体系中的每一个立约者。平等、互惠构成弱势群体保护的社会契约基础和道德义务,也是社会契约和社会秩序的实现条件。在这一意义上,不保护弱势群体,社会契约目的就不能达到,政府合法性就被质疑。弱势群体保护需要对社会契约进行动态完善——创新保护模式、着力后续调整、突出经济权利、建立诉讼制衡机制、高扬人本立约观。     

国际法上国家契约的法律保护

国际法上国家契约及其效力和履行问题在国际法立法、学说和判例上,一直都存在着许多复杂的争议。这些争议随着国际法的历史演进和结构变迁而不断提出新的问题并呈现新的面貌。从最初的武力兴兵索债,到国家间通过外交和平解决国际争端,再到通过国际条约尤其是双边投资条约赋予外国私人直接国际出诉权,乃至晚近通过投资条约中的保护伞条款直接保护国家契约上的国家承诺义务,体现了国家契约在国际法上的地位及其法律调整的历史演进,引出了国际法立法、判例和学说的许多重大的问题和争议。为此,需要对国家契约的国际法调整作出适当平衡的政策选择和制度设计。     

从雇佣契约到劳动契约的法理和制度变迁

从雇佣契约到劳动契约的社会化变迁,劳动法对民法中的两大基本原则"平等"与"诚信"进行了理念上的更新,矫正了形式平等并升华了一般诚信,转向了劳动法中的实质平等和最大诚信。从合同的订立、履行、解除到变更,雇佣契约与劳动契约的法律调整呈现出不同的价值评判及处理手段。通过退休年龄的实例分析,可以发现劳动契约被注入了社会保险、岗位资源等雇佣契约所不具备的社会化因素。从社会化的角度出发,劳动者就是弱者,劳动法必须突破民法视域下雇佣契约平等保护的作法,进而实现单方面倾斜性保护劳动者的神圣使命。     

契约神圣原则是否过时——评《契约神圣原则的再思考》

<正> 在近现代民商法的发展过程中,契约法在其观念和内容上呈现出最富戏剧性的节奏。古典的契约理论作为普遍共识存续了近千百年,但在本世纪中叶后却受到严峻的挑战。一直为人们所恪守的“契约神圣”(Sancti-ty of Contracts)、“意思自治”(Autonomy of Will)等理论遭到批判,产生了诸如契约的“衰落”、“崩溃”、“危机”这样的说法。更有甚者,美国学者还曾提出“契约的死亡”的理论。挑战者们的挺身发难是以社会现实为后盾的:大量的判例和概念性的文章都体现着“契约神圣”、“意思自治”等不可避免的衰落。似乎“衰落”已经成了契约法的内容和组成部分,而对衰落的检讨则形成了契约法的现代或超现代观念。     

唐宋时期买卖契约与借贷契约中的人保制度探析

唐宋时期买卖契约与借贷契约在人保与物保的选择上表现出了较为明显的倾向。在买卖契约中,由于双方当事人的交易多为即时性交易,故人保条款并不是每契必具。在不动产买卖契约中,保人身份固定化,保证责任主要是卖方所有权瑕疵担保,关注的不是物的瑕疵,保证责任具有单一性与单向性。在动产买卖契约中,保人身份较为多样化,保证责任除了所有权瑕疵担保之外,还有履行保证。而对于借贷契约而言,虽然在一些契约中出现了物保条款,但囿于可供选择作为物保的标的物的缺乏以及物保本身对债务人使用物的限制,人们更加倾向于选择人保。对比买卖契约与借贷契约,人保在借贷契约中的地位与作用更为重要,这与借贷契约双方当事人权利义务的履行特点相关。     

再论中国古代契约与国家法的关系——以唐代田宅、奴婢卖买契约为中心

由唐代有关卖买契约的令文及有关律文规定,可见当时卖买契约与国家法律的基本关系。唐代卖买契约,基本是依照法律令进行的程序和活动,是在法律指导下形成的秩序。在此方面,古代契约活动的依据,主要为国家法,而非所谓民间法。     

Transparency and doubt: Understanding and interpretation in pragmatics and in law

Correspondence on this paper and offprint requests should be addressed to Professor Marcelo Dascal, Department of Philosophy, Tel Aviv University, 69978 Tel Aviv, Israel. We thank Dennis Kurzon for helpful remarks on an early draft.     

静态与动态——英汉用词差异及其翻译

英汉用词差异很大：英语倾向于多用名词、介词、形容词等呈静态词类,是一种静态的语言;汉语倾向于多用动词,叙述呈动态,是一种动态的语言。蕴藏在语言表面形态差异之下的是中西方思维、哲学观和文化心理的巨大差异。英汉两种语言的互译要充分尊重译入语的表达习惯。因此,词类静态动态灵活转换的翻译策略对提高译文质量有着重要意义。     

Trends and Developments in Program Evaluation in General and Criminal Justice Programs in Particular

The paper first describes general trends in evaluation in (mainly) western societies. Why is evaluation growing, what are the characteristics of this ‘growth industry’ and what developments are occurring outside western societies? Trends in the evaluation of criminal justice programs in the USA, the UK and the Netherlands are then discussed. Two important developments are therafter highlighted: experimental evaluations and theory-driven evaluations. Both approaches are discussed, and some pros and cons are listed. Finally, the paper outlines some challenges for future work in the evaluation of criminal justice programs, stressing the importance of combining good designs with both program and social science theories.     

浅谈高校消防工作存在的问题及对策

消防工作关系到人民的生命和财产安全，关系到国家的稳定和发展。高校国家教育人才的基地，学生集体居住地，极易发生火灾，形成群死群伤，故高校消防工作是必不可少的，且责任重于泰山。     

Creatine phosphokinase in serum and cerebrospinal fluid, and microscopic findings in brain and heart in hypothermic rabbits

Signs of hypothermia injury were studied in rabbits cooled to a core temperature of 30 degrees C by immersion in ice water and thereafter rewarmed to 35 degrees C. Anaesthetized control rabbits were kept normothermic (37 degrees C) for a corresponding time (4 h). Creatine phosphokinase (CPK) activity increased 24 h after hypothermia to 20-fold in serum. In cerebrospinal fluid the activity was already significantly (5-fold) increased after hypothermia and was still as high at 24 h. Smaller increase was also found in the control normothermic rabbits both in serum (10-fold) and cerebrospinal fluid (2-fold). The values had returned to the initial level after 1 week. Small haemorrhages were observed in the brain at 24 h and slight scarring was seen in the myocardium of some rabbits which had lived 4 weeks following hypothermia. The results indicate that CPK can be a useful marker in the diagnostics of hypothermia death, especially in cerebrospinal fluid, which is less affected than blood by autolysis.     

Child malnutrition and mortality in China and Vietnam in a comparative perspective

Under the traditional socialist central planning system, economic growth in China and Vietnam was unstable and not very satisfactory. Yet, both countries achieved a remarkable progress in the area of human development. Later, under the market socialist model, China and Vietnam achieved very high rates of GDP growth, and malnutrition declined significantly. Yet, income distribution and the provision of key public services deteriorated in both countries. Progress in reducing child mortality in China was relatively slow, before improving in the early 2000s. Although Vietnam is much poorer than China, and has been growing less fast, its record in this area was markedly better. We show that this apparent paradox is due mainly to the fact that the negative side-effects of market-oriented reforms have reached a more advanced and alarming stage in China than in Vietnam. Our results also suggest that an additional factor is constituted by a relatively better status of women in Vietnam with respect to China. However, we also warn that signs are emerging in Vietnam too, indicating that it is entering a stage of development where the social problems now evident in China are starting to manifest themselves on a large and worrying scale. Our policy conclusions advocate in favour of re-establishing (in a new form, compatible with the maintenance of the economic dynamism of the market socialist system) some positive features of the pre-reform socialist model, among which universal public provision of basic public services is paramount.

Racial Disparity in Police Stop and Searches in England and Wales

Data published by the United Kingdom’s Ministry for Justice clearly shows that, compared to persons who were White, members of racial minorities in England, particularly Blacks, were far more likely to be stopped and searched by the police. The question is whether such racial disparity in stops and searches could be justified by racial disparities in offending? Or whether the disparity in stop and searches exceeded the disparity in offending? This paper proposes a method for measuring the amount of excess in racial disparity in police stop and searches. Using the most recently published Ministry of Justice data (for 2007/08) for Police Areas in England and Wales it concludes that while in several Areas there was no excess to racial disparity in police stop and searches, there was, on the basis of the methodology proposed in the paper, evidence of such excess in some Police Areas of England and Wales.     

Legal and ethical issues in microbicides research and development in Canada

The Canadian AIDS Society (CAS) recently completed a report entitled Microbicides Development and Delivery in Canada: Legal, Ethical and Human Rights Issues. The report builds on Canadian and international experience and was written in consultation with Canadian community and international experts. It is available on the CAS website (www.cdnaids.ca) and from the Canadian HIV/AIDS Information Centre (www.aidssida.cpha.ca) as of September 2004. In this article the report's author, Anna Alexandrova, argues that Canada needs to develop a microbicides development and delivery strategy that addresses research and development issues, outlines possible roles for meaningful community participation, and provides guidelines on funding, promotion, licensing, and distribution.     

Corporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility in Profit- and in Non-Profit-Organizations

Corporate Governance governs corporations. To discuss the law and economics of corporations, their performance on the market and management control by legislation and government, is to discuss Corporate Governance. Now, Corporate Governance is being challenged by a new concept to conceive the role of corporations in the world and to control their managers: this is the concept of Corporate Social Responsibilty (CSR). This concept focuses on other than merely profit centered functions of corporations; rather, performance of corporations is measured by criteria of good corporate citizenship. In the Non-Profit sector, corporations also play a major role, although organizations in this sector typically differ from business corporations in several aspects. Yet, deficits of transparency and control of NPO are being discussed here as well. The tendency is to draw from the concept of corporate governance to develop appropriate remedies. Furthermore, the discussion of Corporate Social Responsibilty has also made its way to the NPO sector.