美国禁酒执法的过程及启示

1919年1月16日禁酒宪法修正案是美国宪法的一部分。为了执行该修正案,美国国会制定了国家禁酒法案(沃尔斯特德法案),并成立了执法机构———执行禁酒局。禁酒法律的执行于1920年1月17日正式开始,但由于执法面临诸多困难,结果导致不管是联邦执法还是地方执法都未能实现其立法目的,反而产生了不少新的社会问题。禁酒修正案因其存在许多缺陷,在实施了约14年后被通过的第二十一条修正案废止,禁酒执法宣告终结。禁酒执法虽然只持续了短短14年,但对美国社会和美国人民的影响却非常深远,也让我们更加深刻的认识到,法律规定不能离现实生活太远,执法不能带有歧视性,执法成败不仅仅是强制和投入的问题,同时执法失败会让民众对法律产生不信任感,甚至藐视法律。     

从民事权利 看私有财产保护

中国《1982年宪法》,通过了第四次修正案,第一次明确地将"公民的合法的私有财产不受侵害"纳入到国家根本大法之中.从民事权利的角度看,宪法的原则规定,不能代替普通法律的颁布和实施,为此,我们要从社会意义和法律地位上对私有财产的保扩加以完善,这是现代法治社会的关键所在,也是落实宪法修正案的当务之急.     

论美国毒树之果原则--兼论对我国刑事证据立法的启示

违反美国宪法关于逮捕、搜查、扣押、电子监听、讯问、辨认等相关规定的行为,当事人可以提起侵权诉讼,要求司法机关签发禁止令,要求对违宪者采取行政制裁甚至刑事处罚等.但是,违反宪法禁止性规定最直接影响刑事司法程序的后果是证据的排除.我国学者一般将美国的排除规则理解为违反美国宪法第四条修正案而导致非法证据排除的规则,而较少关注违反第五条修正案、第六条修正案以及违反其他正当程序而产生的排除规则.虽然每个排除规则的基础不尽相同,但是这些不同的宪法保障具有许多共同点--其中,最明显的是,不同的排除规则都要求适用毒树之果原则,虽然在具体适用时有所差异.执法官员违反宪法、法律相关规定取得的证据,在审判时应予以排除,这是排除规则基本的要求.但是,排除规则之精髓且适用时最为复杂的莫过于毒树之果理论.本文对毒树之果原则的基础(排除规则)、确立和发展(限制)以及在特殊情况下的适用进行初步探讨,以期对我国有关非法证据排除规则的立法有所裨益.     

让每一个家境贫寒的被告人获得辩护——评《吉迪恩的号角》

最大限度地保护公民的基本权利是现代法治社会的一个重要特征。1791年美国联邦宪法第六修正案规定:"在所有刑事指控中,被告都应享有……获得律师帮助进行辩护的权利。"但是,由于人们在金钱和财富方面的不平等,这种表面上人人平等的宪法权利实际上隐含着实质上的不平等。那么,在通常需要破费巨额金钱才能买到程序公正和平等法律保护的法治社会     

第四次修宪的法治亮点

我国宪法1954年由第一届全国人民代表大会第一次会议通过.现行宪法是在1954年宪法的基础上,经过全面修改,于1982年由第五届全国人民代表大会第五次会议通过并公布实行的.改革开放以来,随着社会主义现代化建设事业的不断发展,1988年、1993年、1999年我国三次以宪法修正案形式对现行宪法作出修改.2004年第十届全国人民代表大会第二次会议审议通过的宪法修正案是对宪法的第四次修改.<中国共产党中央委员会关于修改宪法部分内容的建议>高度概括了本次修宪的主要内容,从法律的视角讲,第四次修宪具有与时俱进的特点,彰显了弘扬先进法治文明的特色.依笔者之见,将"三个代表"重要思想写入宪法,体现了中国共产党执政为民的愿望和广大人民的心愿,是从法律上保证人民群众的根本利益和保障人民的权利.从法治文明的视角讲,第四次修宪的法治亮点还体现在人权保障、合法私有财产权的保障和"紧急状态"入宪等方面.     

从修宪看中国改革的进程

去年,中共中央向社会公布《修改宪法建议》(征求意见稿)之后,引起法律界内外的极大关注。经过全民讨论,在充分发扬民主、广泛征求意见的基础上,中共中央将《建议》(草案)提交到了全国人大常委会。在十届全国人大常委会第六次会议上,常委们一致决定将常委会通过的以《建议》为基础的《宪法修正案》(草案)提交十届人大二次会议审议。3月14日,《宪法修正案》(草案)经过代表的认真审议,获得高票通过,成为中华人民共和国1982年宪法的第四个修正案。出席“两会”的代表、委员中的律师,出于法律人的职业本性,将参政议政的热忱化为积极参与修宪的实际行动,无论大会、小会,他们都认真发言,不仅对这次修宪给予了高度评价,从法理上阐明修宪的必要性,还对如何维护宪法尊严,保证宪法实施提出了很好的建议。本刊选择部分发表,从中可以看出他们坚定落实依法治国方略的拳拳之心。(文中标题均为编者所加)——编者     

宪法修正案凝聚了全国人民的最大共识

去年,中共中央向社会公布《修改宪法建议》(征求意见稿)之后,引起法律界内外的极大关注。经过全民讨论,在充分发扬民主、广泛征求意见的基础上,中共中央将《建议》(草案)提交到了全国人大常委会。在十届全国人大常委会第六次会议上,常委们一致决定将常委会通过的以《建议》为基础的《宪法修正案》(草案)提交十届人大二次会议审议。3月14日,《宪法修正案》(草案)经过代表的认真审议,获得高票通过,成为中华人民共和国1982年宪法的第四个修正案。出席“两会”的代表、委员中的律师,出于法律人的职业本性,将参政议政的热忱化为积极参与修宪的实际行动,无论大会、小会,他们都认真发言,不仅对这次修宪给予了高度评价,从法理上阐明修宪的必要性,还对如何维护宪法尊严,保证宪法实施提出了很好的建议。本刊选择部分发表,从中可以看出他们坚定落实依法治国方略的拳拳之心。(文中标题均为编者所加)——编者     

从实际出发，反映时代要求

去年,中共中央向社会公布《修改宪法建议》(征求意见稿)之后,引起法律界内外的极大关注。经过全民讨论,在充分发扬民主、广泛征求意见的基础上,中共中央将《建议》(草案)提交到了全国人大常委会。在十届全国人大常委会第六次会议上,常委们一致决定将常委会通过的以《建议》为基础的《宪法修正案》(草案)提交十届人大二次会议审议。3月14日,《宪法修正案》(草案)经过代表的认真审议,获得高票通过,成为中华人民共和国1982年宪法的第四个修正案。出席“两会”的代表、委员中的律师,出于法律人的职业本性,将参政议政的热忱化为积极参与修宪的实际行动,无论大会、小会,他们都认真发言,不仅对这次修宪给予了高度评价,从法理上阐明修宪的必要性,还对如何维护宪法尊严,保证宪法实施提出了很好的建议。本刊选择部分发表,从中可以看出他们坚定落实依法治国方略的拳拳之心。(文中标题均为编者所加)——编者     

里程碑：“尊重和保障人权”写进宪法

去年,中共中央向社会公布《修改宪法建议》(征求意见稿)之后,引起法律界内外的极大关注。经过全民讨论,在充分发扬民主、广泛征求意见的基础上,中共中央将《建议》(草案)提交到了全国人大常委会。在十届全国人大常委会第六次会议上,常委们一致决定将常委会通过的以《建议》为基础的《宪法修正案》(草案)提交十届人大二次会议审议。3月14日,《宪法修正案》(草案)经过代表的认真审议,获得高票通过,成为中华人民共和国1982年宪法的第四个修正案。出席“两会”的代表、委员中的律师,出于法律人的职业本性,将参政议政的热忱化为积极参与修宪的实际行动,无论大会、小会,他们都认真发言,不仅对这次修宪给予了高度评价,从法理上阐明修宪的必要性,还对如何维护宪法尊严,保证宪法实施提出了很好的建议。本刊选择部分发表,从中可以看出他们坚定落实依法治国方略的拳拳之心。(文中标题均为编者所加)——编者     

关注民生、民权 关注焦点、难点——北京律师界人大代表、政协委员不忘使命

去年,中共中央向社会公布《修改宪法建议》(征求意见稿)之后,引起法律界内外的极大关注。经过全民讨论,在充分发扬民主、广泛征求意见的基础上,中共中央将《建议》(草案)提交到了全国人大常委会。在十届全国人大常委会第六次会议上,常委们一致决定将常委会通过的以《建议》为基础的《宪法修正案》(草案)提交十届人大二次会议审议。3月14日,《宪法修正案》(草案)经过代表的认真审议,获得高票通过,成为中华人民共和国1982年宪法的第四个修正案。出席“两会”的代表、委员中的律师,出于法律人的职业本性,将参政议政的热忱化为积极参与修宪的实际行动,无论大会、小会,他们都认真发言,不仅对这次修宪给予了高度评价,从法理上阐明修宪的必要性,还对如何维护宪法尊严,保证宪法实施提出了很好的建议。本刊选择部分发表,从中可以看出他们坚定落实依法治国方略的拳拳之心。(文中标题均为编者所加)——编者     

Encryption: A 21st Century National Security Dilemma

As the 21st century approaches, encryption is presenting a national security dilemma in the US. While the use of strong encryption for computerized data is essential in protecting our nation, widespread, unregulated encryption poses serious problems on two levels: encryption could inhibit the government's ability to enforce the law as well as gather foreign intelligence. As a result, the government has established export controls on encryption products and proposed a 'key recovery' system designed to enable law enforcement officers to access encrypted data in the course of lawful investigations. The export controls have been ineffective and counterproductive policy and are arguably unconstitutional under the First Amendment. However, export controls are the only viable solution to the intelligence gathering problem and will need to survive these political and legal attacks or our national security could be jeopardized. Key recovery will be difficult and costly to implement and has come under attack by civil liberties' groups. Nevertheless, a cost-effective compromise on key recovery is necessary to meet the needs of law enforcement. Such a system, if it mirrored current electronic surveillance law, would effectively balance individual privacy rights and governmental interests and thus should survive constitutional scrutiny. Congress and President Clinton ought to enact key recovery legislation soon before the use of encryption becomes commonplace. A failure to act intelligently and effectively on this critical, cutting-edge issue could compromise our nation's future.     

A new test for evaluating Eighth Amendment challenges to lethal injections

An explosion of Eighth Amendment challenges to lethal injection protocols has struck the federal courts. The Supreme Court's recent decision in Hill v. McDonough,1 which empowered prisoners to bring challenges to lethal injection procedures under 42 U.S.C. para. 1983, has facilitated a flood of new lethal injection cases. In response, several courts have ordered states to alter their protocols, spurring other capital inmates to litigate such challenges. Distressingly, the courts evaluating these claims have almost no law to guide them. The last Supreme Court decision applying the Eighth Amendment to a method of execution was written in 1947; that case, Louisiana ex rel. Francis v. Resweber,2 occurred before the Eighth Amendment was applied to the states and resulted in a 4-1-4 split. Although lower courts have heard numerous challenges to execution methods, few have analyzed the constitutional validity of a method of execution in detail. Making matters worse, courts that find Eighth Amendment violations must craft equitable remedies that often amount to entirely new execution protocols. No clear precedent exists to guide courts in formulating such remedies. This Note proposes a legal standard for the administration of Eighth Amendment method-of-execution claims, focusing on lethal injection cases. Part I describes lethal injection procedures and summarizes recent litigation. Part II discusses the difficulty of evaluating lethal injection claims, analyzing both general difficulties in interpreting the Eighth Amendment and specific difficulties associated with lethal injection cases. Part III proposes a standard for addressing method-of-execution claims that attempts to balance a prisoner's interest in a painless execution with a state's interest in conducting executions efficiently. Part IV discusses remedies for unconstitutional procedures. Part V concludes.     

Student privacy rights involving strip searches

The Fourth Amendment to the US Constitution provides protection of all citizens against unreasonable search and seizure. The US Supreme Court has affirmed that the basic purpose of the Fourth Amendment is to safeguard the privacy and security of individuals against unreasonable intrusive searches by governmental officials. Since students possess constitutional rights and public school officials are considered governmental officials for Fourth Amendment purposes, privacy protection is afforded students in public schools within reasonable limits. A reasonable search is one that clearly does not violate the constitutional rights of students. What is reasonable, however, depends on the context within which a search occurs. Strip searches involving students in public schools are the most intrusive form of all searches. Extreme caution should be exercised by school officials regarding these types of searches.     

Raising the "civilized minimum" of pain amelioration for prisoners to avoid cruel and unusual punishment

This Article addresses the problems with our nation's cultural and legal prohibitions against certain pain management treatments. The practice of pain management has not kept pace with the many medical advances that have made it possible for physicians to ameliorate most pain. The Author notes that some patients are denied access to certain forms of treatments due to the mistaken belief that addiction may ensue. Additionally, some individuals are under-treated for their pain to a greater degree than are others. This is especially the case for our nation's prisoners. The Author contends that prisoners are frequently denied effective pain amelioration. He notes, however, that there has been improvement in medical treatment in general for prisoners due to court challenges based on the Eighth Amendment's prohibition against cruel and unusual punishment. Yet, due to the protection of qualified immunity given to jailers and prison health care providers, prisoners cannot bring a claim for negligence or medical malpractice, they must allege a violation of their constitutional rights, a significantly higher legal standard. Prisoners must meet a subjective test showing that there was a deliberate indifference to their medical needs that violates the protection of the Eighth Amendment. The Author concludes that because medical advances have made it possible to alleviate most pain suffering, withholding pain treatment or providing a less effective treatment is tantamount to inflicting pain and should be viewed as a violation of the Eighth Amendment.     

Restrictions on cryptography in India – A case studyof encryption and privacy

The developments of technology in communications industry have radically altered the ways in which we communicate and exchange information. Along with the speed, efficiency, and cost-saving benefits of the digital revolution come new challenges to the security and privacy of communications and information traversing the global communications infrastructure. As is with any technology the misuse of technology is noticed similarly the encryption technology. Encryption and other advanced technologies may be used, with direct impact on law enforcement and therefore some restrictions are necessary in the interests of national security. The problem, however, is ensuring that the restriction is legitimate and solely for in the interests of national security, the state not being allowed to interfere and keep a track on individuals' activities and private lives without sufficient cause. The individual needs encryption to protect their personal privacy and confidential data such as medical information, personal financial data, and electronic mail. In a networked environment, such information is increasingly at risk of being stolen or misused. Therefore, encryption is critical to building a secure and trusted global information infrastructure. Digital computers have changed the landscape considerably and the entire issue, at its simplest level, boils down to a form of balancing of interests. The specific legal and rights-related problems arising from the issue of cryptography and privacy in the Indian context are examined in this paper.     

The Responsiveness of Direct and Indirect Elections

Previous research argues the Seventeenth Amendment made Senate elections more responsive. To make this claim, existing work compares the vote‐seat relationships of direct and indirect elections before and after the Seventeenth Amendment. I argue this approach is problematic because it does not account for regional variation and compares elections from different time periods using presidential instead of Senate vote. I overcome these problems by simulating indirect elections using state legislatures’ partisan compositions to evaluate the responsiveness of direct and indirect elections after the Seventeenth Amendment. With this counterfactual approach, my findings suggest direct elections are not necessary for electoral responsiveness.     

Spam and the First Amendment Redux: Free Speech Issues in State Regulation of Unsolicited Email

The scourge of email spam is almost forty years old, and, yet, it does not appear to be disappearing. In fact, spam has expanded to other ubiquitous Internet platforms including social media Web sites. It seems, then, that the many state anti-spam statutes have been unsuccessful in regulating the sending of unsolicited commercial email, but not for lack of trying. This article examines the First Amendment challenges to state anti-spam laws.     

Cyber pornography in India and its implication on cyber café operators

Cyber pornography plays an accessory role in negative social issues such as child abuse, violence against women, rape, inequality, relationship and family breakdown, youth crime, promiscuity and sexually transmitted diseases. Cyberspace and the pornographic matter transmitted through it have created challenges for India’s antiquated laws. The lack of jurisdictional boundaries and the sheer volume of traffic that the Internet can handle, as well as the potential for anonymity have resulted in a complete lack of control over what appears on the Web at the click of a mouse button. Before there was no liability of a cyber café owner but with the introduction of the Information Technology Amendment Act, 2008, the responsibilities of Cyber Café owners have only increased. This paper deals with the Cyber pornography, its legal implications and the liability of cyber café owner under the Information Technology Amendment Act, 2008.     

食品安全的刑法保障之评析:以《刑法修正案(八)》为视角

我国食品安全的刑法规制经历了一个较长的发展过程,1997年刑法规定了生产、销售不符合卫生标准的食品罪,生产、销售有毒、有害食品罪两个罪名,2011年刑法修正案(八)对上述两个罪名进行了修订,并新增了食品安全监管失职罪.整体上看,刑法修正案(八)便利了司法机关打击食品安全领域犯罪行为,但是其违背刑法谦抑性、过分关注民意、罪名的新增违背刑事立法类型化之本旨等缺陷还是显而易见的.